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ESCHATOLOGY

OR

THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE OF
THE LAST THINGS

A DOGMATIC TREATISE

BY
THE RT. REV. MSGR. JOSEPH POHLE, PH.D.,D.D.

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF APOLOGETICS AT THE
CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA

ADAPTED AND EDITED
BY

ARTHUR PREUSS

SECOND, REVISED EDITION

B. HERDER BOOK CO.

17 SOUTH BROADWAY, ST. Louis, Mo.

AND

68, GREAT RUSSELL ST., LONDON, W. C.
1918

NIHIL OBSTAT

Sti. Ludovici, die 17 Maji 1918

F. G. Holweck,
Censor Librorum.

IMPRIMATUR

Sti. Ludovici, die 18 Maji 1918

^•Joannes /. Glennon,
Archiepiscopus
Sti. Ludovici

Copyright, 191?

by
Joseph Gummersbach

All rights! reserved
Printed in U. S. A.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION i

PART I. ESCHATOLOGY OF MAN AS AN INDIVIDUAL .... 5

CH. I. Death 5

CH. II. The Particular Judgment 18

§ i. Existence of a Particular Judgment 18

§ 2. Time of the Particular Judgment 22

CH. III. Heaven 28

§ i. The Existence of Heaven 28

§2. The Properties of Heaven 39

CH. IV. Hell 45

§ i. The Existence of Hell 45

§2. Nature of the Punishment 52

§3. Characteristics of the Pains of Hell .... 65

CH. V. Purgatory 75

§ i. The Existence of Purgatory 75

§2. Nature and Duration of Purgatory 83

§3. Succoring the Dead 92

PART II. ESCHATOLOGY OF THE HUMAN RACE 102

CH. I. The Signs that are to Precede the General Judg
ment 103

CH. II. The Resurrection of the Flesh 121

§ i. Reality of the Resurrection 121

§2. Universality of the Resurrection 132

§3. Nature of the Risen Body

CH. III. The Last Judgment

§ I. Reality of the Last Judgment ....
§ 2. Chiliasm, or the Theory of a Millennium

INDEX .

INTRODUCTION

i. DEFINITION. — Eschatology is the crown
and capstone of dogmatic theology. It may be
defined as "the doctrine of the last things/' and
tells how the creatures called into being and raised
to the supernatural state by God, find their last
end in Him, of whom, and by whom, and in
whom, as Holy Scripture says, "are all things." 1

Eschatology is anthropological and cosmo-
logical rather than theological; for, though it
deals with God as the Consummator and Uni
versal Judge, strictly speaking its subject is the
created universe, i. e. man and the cosmos.

The consummation of the world is not left to
"fate" (fatum, c^a^eV*/). God is a just judge,
who distinguishes strictly between virtue and vice
and metes out reward or punishment to every
man according to his deserts. The rational crea
tures were made without their choice ; but they can
not reach their final end without their cooperation.
Their destiny depends upon the attitude they take
towards the divine plan of salvation. The good
are eternally rewarded in Heaven, the wicked are
punished forever in Hell. In the latter God

i Rom. XI, 36.

I

a INTRODUCTION

will manifest His justice, while in the former
He will show His love and mercy. By deal
ing justly with both good and bad, He at the same
time triumphantly demonstrates His omnipotence,
wisdom, and holiness. Thus Eschatology leads
us back to the theological principle that the cre
ated universe in all its stages serves to glorify
God.2

The consummation of the world may be re
garded either as in process (in fieri) or as an ac
complished fact (in facto esse). Regarding it
from the former point of view we speak of the
"last things" (novissima, r« ^xara), i. e. the events
to happen at the second coming of our Lord.
'The four last things of man" are Death, Judg
ment, Heaven (Purgatory), and Hell.3

The four last things of the human race as a
whole are : the Last Day, the Resurrection of the
Flesh, and the Final Judgment, followed by the
End of the World. These four events constitute
so many stages on the way to the predestined state
of consummation (consummatio saeculi, <™i/TeA«a
atoh'os), which will be permanent and irrevocable.

2. DIVISION. — In the light of these considera
tions it is easy to find a suitable division for the
present treatise. The object of the final consum-

2 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God the An- nibus operibus tuis memorare no-

thor of Nature and the Supernatural, vissima tua, et in aeternum non

and ed., pp. 80 sqq., St. Louis 1916. peccabis."

8 Cfr. Ecclus. VII, 40: "In om-

INTRODUCTION 3

mation is the created universe, which consists
of pure spirits, human beings, and irrational
creatures. The lot of the spirits (angels and
demons) was determined forever at the very be
ginning of things.4 Man and the physical uni
verse still await their consummation. Man, in
dividually as well as collectively, occupies the
centre of creation. Hence we may divide Escha-
tology into two parts: (i) The Eschatology of
Man as an Individual, (2) The Eschatology of
the Human Race.

GENERAL READINGS : — St. Thomas, Sunima Theologica, Supple-
mentum, qu. 69 sq. ; Summa contra Gentiles, III, 1-63 (tr. by
Rickaby, God and His Creatures, pp. 183-233, London 1905), and
the commentators.

Mazzella, De Deo Creante, disp. 6, 4th ed., Rome 1908.— E.
Meric, L'Autre Vie, Paris 1880; I2th ed., Paris 1900; (German
tr., Das andere Leben, Mayence 1882). — * Card. Katschthaler,
Eschatologia, Ratisbon 1888. — F. Stentrup, S.J., Soteriologia,
Vol. II, Innsbruck 1889.— Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dog-
maticae, Vol. IX, 3rd ed., Freiburg 1911.— * Atzberger, Die
christliche Eschatologie in den Stadien Hirer Offenbarung im A.
u. N. T., Freiburg 1890.— B. Tepe, S.J., Institutions Theologicae,
Vol. IV, pp. 680 sqq., Paris 1896. — P. Einig, De Deo Creante et
Consummante, Treves 1898. — B. Jungmann, De Novissimis, 4th
ed., Ratisbon 1898. — J. Royer, Die Eschatologie des Buches Job
unter Berilcksichtigung der vorexilischen Propheten, Freiburg
1901. — *W. Schneider, Das andere Leben; Ernst und Trost der
christlichen Weltanschauung, loth ed., Paderborn 1910. — Card.
Billot, S.J., Quaestiones de Novissimis, 3rd ed., Rome 1908.—
Prager, Die Lehre von der Vollendung aller Dinge, 1903. —
Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. X, Part II,
Miinster 1904. — J. E. Niederhuber, Die Eschatologie des hi. Am-
brosius, Paderborn 1907. — J. Keel, Die jenseitige Welt, 3 vols.,
Einsiedeln 1868 sqq. — D. Palmieri, S.J., De Novissimis, Rome

4 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God the Author of Nature and the Supernatural.
2nd ed., St. Louis 1916, pp. 340 sqq.

4 INTRODUCTION

1908.— Wilhelm-Scannell, A Manual of Catholic Theology, Vol.
II, 2nd ed., pp. 534~56o, London 1901.— S. J. Hunter, S J. ' Out
lines of Dogmatic Theology, Vol. Ill, pp. 424-464, London
1894.— P. J. Toner, art. " Eschatology," in the Catholic Ency
clopedia, Vol. V, pp. 528-534.— W. O. E. Osterley, The Doctrine
of the Last Things, London 1908.— M. O'Ryan, "Eschatology
of the Old Testament," in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record, Vol.
XXVII, No. 509, 4th Series, pp. 472-486.— Charles, Critical His
tory of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, and
in Christianity, London 1899 (to be read with caution).

For further bibliographical data see Alger, A Critical History
of the Doctrine of the Future Life, with Complete Bibliography
by Ezra Abbott, New York 1871.

For the early history of Eschatology see Atzberger, Die
Geschichte der christlichen Eschatologie innerhalb der vor-
nizanischen Zeit, Freiburg 1896.

PART I

ESCHATOLOGY OF MAN
AS AN INDIVIDUAL

CHAPTER I

DEATH

i. DEFINITION OF DEATH. — "Death," in
common as well as Scriptural usage, means the
cessation of life.

a) There is a threefold life (physical, spiritual, and
eternal), and hence there must be a threefold death.

(1) Physical death consists in the separation of the
body from the soul;

(2) Spiritual death is the loss of sanctifying grace,
caused by original or mortal sin ; 2

(3) "Eternal death" is a synonym for damnation.
St. John3 calls damnation "the second death;''4 St.
Paul, " eternal punishment," 5 " corruption," 6 " destruc
tion." 7

St. Augustine says : " Though Holy Scripture mentions

i Mors, eavaros. 4 Mors secunda, devrepos

2. Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. V, 5 "OXe0poj> alwviov. (2 Thess. I,

can. 2: " pcccatum quod est mors 9).

animae." « 3>0opa. (Gal. VI, 8).

s Apoc. II, ii ; XX, 6, 14; XXI, 8. 7 'ATrwXeia- (Phil. Ill, 19).

5

6 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

many deaths, there are two principal ones, namely, the
death which the first man [Adam] incurred by sin,
and that which the second man [Christ] will inflict
in the judgment." 8 Here bodily death and the loss
of sanctifying grace are comprised under one term, as an
effect of original sin. Of course, the loss of sanctifying
grace 9 and eternal damnation can be called " death " only
in a figurative sense.

b) Literally death means the cessation of bod
ily life, caused by the separation of the soul from
the body.10 It is principally in this sense that
Eschatology is concerned with death.

The Biblical names for death are as various as they are
significant. Some are derived from the symptoms that at
tend the separation of the soul from the body ; e. g. " disso
lution," 1X " end," 12 " outcome," 13 " return to the earth," 14
etc. Others point to original sin as the cause of death;
for instance, "work of the devil,"15 "the enemy,"18
" what God hath not made," 17 etc. Belief in immortality
is more or less evident from such phrases as " sleep," 18
stripping off the earthly house of habitation,19 the " lay
ing away of this tabernacle,"20 going to the fathers,21

8 Opus Imperfect, c. lulian., VI, & Odvaros • • •

31: " Quamvis multae mortes in- dirb ff&fULTO ?•
veniantur in Scripturis, duae sunt 11 Phil. I, 23; 2 Tim. IV, 6.
praecipuae: pritna et secunda; prima 12 Matth. X, 22.
est quam peccando intulit primus 13 Heb. XIII, 7.
homo [Adam'], secunda est quam 1* Gen. Ill, 19.
iudicando illaturus est secundus IB John VIII, 44.
homo iChristusl." 16 i Cor. XV, 26.

Q'Afiaprta Trpds O&varov. (Cfr. 17 Wisd. I, 13.
i John V, 16). 18 Job III, 13; Ps. XII, 4; Matth.

10 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Civ. Dei, IX, 24.
XIII, 6: " separatio animae a cor- 19 2 Cor. V, i.

pore." — Clement of Alexandria, 20 2 Pet. I, 14.

Stromata, 7 (Migne, P. G., IX, 500): 21 Gen. XV, 15 and elsewhere.

DEATH 7

resting from labor,22 the return of the spirit to God.23 The
latter class of appellations is by far the most important,
since it presupposes belief in the immortality of the soul.
While the body decays or returns to the dust from which
it was formed, the soul lives on for ever. Its separation
from the body is merely temporary : at the general Resur
rection the two will be reunited.24

The state of the soul after its separation from, and
until its reunion with, the body must not be conceived
as an unconscious dream or a sort of semi-conscious
"soul-sleep" (hypnopsychy, psychopannychy), but as a
purely spiritual life, accompanied by full consciousness
and determined as to happiness or unhappiness by the
result of the particular judgment held immediately after
death.25

2. THE DOGMATIC TEACHING OF THE CHURCH.
— Divine Revelation teaches that:

(1) Death is universal;

(2) It is a result of sin; and

(3) It ends the state of probation.

Thesis I: Death is universal.

This proposition embodies the common teach
ing of Catholic theologians.

Proof. That death is universal we know from
experience. Furthermore reason tells us that it
is natural for man to be separated into his constit
uent elements, body and soul.

a) Physiology teaches that every body contains within
itself the germs of dissolution and hence is doomed to die.

22Apoc. XIV, 13. 24 V. infra, Part II, Ch. II.

23 Eccles. XII, 7. 25 V. infra, Sect. 2, pp. 22 sqq.

8 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

When death comes as the result of old age, it is called
" natural " or " physiological." 26 Sacred Scripture ex
presses a fact of ordinary and universal experience when
it calls death " the way of all the earth " 27 and teaches
that " It is appointed unto men once to die." 28 Not
even Christ and His Immaculate Mother were exempt
from death.

b) Certain exceptional cases reported in Sacred Scrip
ture give rise to the question whether the universality of
death is metaphysical or merely moral, in other words,
whether all men must die, or whether some escape the
ordinary fate of mankind.

a) Thus we are told that Henoch, the father of Ma-
thusala, " was translated, that he should not see death ; " 29
he " walked with God, and was seen no more, because
God took him." 30

Of Elias the prophet we read that, as he and his friend
Eliseus were walking and talking together, " a fiery
chariot and fiery horses parted them both asunder, and
Elias went up by a whirlwind into heaven." 31

It seems certain that these two men are, as St. Augus
tine puts it, still " living in the same bodies in which they
were born." 32 But there is no reason to suppose that
they will escape the law of death. Since Tertullian's
time it has been a pious belief among Christians that
Enoch and Elias are the two witnesses mentioned in the
Apocalypse,33 that they will reappear at the end of the

26 Cfr. H. Kisbert, Der Tod aus 29 Heb. XI, 5.

Alt erssch-w ache, Bonn 1908; Flint, 30 Cfr. Gen. V, 24; Ecclus. XLIV,

Human Physiology, p. 849, New 16; XLIX, 16.

York 1888. 314 Kings II, n.

27 Jos. XXIII, 14; 3 Kings II, 2. 32 De Peccato Originali, II, 24:

28 Heb. IX, 27: " Statutum est " Eliam et Henoch non dubitamus,
hominibus semel mori." Cfr. Ps. in quibus nati sunt corporibus, vi-
LXXXVIII, 49: " Quis est homo, vere."

qui vivet et non videbit mortem? " 33 Apoc. XI, 3 sqq.

DEATH

world to preach penance and finally be " overcome by the
beast," i. e. die as martyrs to the faith.34

/?) Concerning the just who will survive on earth at
the second coming of our Lord, St. Paul teaches : " Be
hold I tell you a mystery: we shall not all fall asleep,
but we shall all be changed." 35 The Vulgate renders
this passage differently : " We shall all rise again, but
we shall not all be changed." 86 But the Greek text has
in its favor the famous Vatican codex, most of the uncial
and practically all the cursive manuscripts and vernacular
versions.3'7 Besides, the reading we have adopted is

84 Cfr. Tertullian, De Anima, 50:
" Nee mors eorum reperta est, dilata
soil.; ceterum morituri reservantur,
ut Antichristum sanguine suo extin-
guant." (Migne, P. L., II, 735).
However, as this interpretation is
contradicted by St. Jerome (Ep. ng
ad Minerv. et Alex., n. 4) and oth
ers, it is not entirely certain.

85 i Cor. XV, 51: ndj/res (lev ou

Trdpres 5e ctXXa-

36 " Omnes quidem resurgemus,
sed non omnes immutabimur."

37 Cfr. C. Lattey, S.J., in the
Appendix to the Westminster Ver
sion of i Cor.; Cornely, Comment.
in I Cor., pp. 506 sqq., Paris 1890;
Al. Schafer, Erklarung der beiden
Briefe an die Korinther, pp. 334
gqq., Miinster 1903; J. MacRory, The
Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinth
ians, P. I, pp. 251 sqq., Dublin 1915.
Speaking of the reading which we
have adopted, Dr. MacRory (p. 252
•q.) says: " It is supported by
B E K L P among uncials, by
nearly all the cursive MSS., by the
Syriac, Coptic, Gothic versions, as
well as by many MSS. of the
Aethiopic; it was the reading of not
a few Latin MSS. in the time of St.
Jerome, and it is the reading known

to practically all the Greek Fathers.
On the ground of external evidence,
therefore, this reading is far the most
probable. But internal evidence is
almost more in its favor, for accord
ing to this reading (a) there is a
mystery here, namely, that some
shall be changed and put on im
mortality without passing through
death, (b) the Apostle, as in the
rest of the chapter, refers only to
the just, either all the just of all
times if we render: ' we shall not
all sleep '; or all the just alive at
the Second Coming if we render:
' none of us shall sleep '; (c) the
connexion with the next verse is easy
and natural : ' we shall not all die
but we shall all be changed in a mo
ment,' etc. We take it, then, that
this is the true reading. Nor need
there be difficulty about admitting an
error in our Vulgate about even a
dogmatic text like this, the reading of
which was uncertain not only at the
time of the Council of Trent but
even in the days of St. Jerome.
Trent, indeed, binds us to receive as
sacred and canonical the sacred
books with all their parts, as they
were wont to be read in the Catho
lic Church and are contained in the
Old Latin Vulgate (Sess. iv, Deer.

io THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

demanded by the context. " In the previous verse," says
Father Lattey, " St. Paul lays it down that the body in
its present perishable condition cannot enter heaven. At
once the difficulty arises about the just who are alive at
the last day. St. Paul meets it by telling of a ' mystery ' ;
these just, it is true, will not die, but none the less their
bodies will have to be glorified — all the just, living or
dead, will be changed. When the dead rise incorruptible,
we, the living, shall be changed; our corruptible bodies
will put on incorruption. After that supreme moment,
death will have lost all power over man; human bodies
will be perishable no more." 38

This plausible interpretation is confirmed by the fol
lowing passage in Saint Paul's First Epistle to the
Thessalonians : " For this we tell you as the Lord's
word, that we who live, who survive until the Lord's
coming, shall not precede them that are fallen asleep
(dormierunt) , . . . and the dead in Christ shall rise
first (primi, irpwrov). Thereupon (deinde) we the
living, who remain, shall together with them be caught up
(simul rapiemur cum illis) in the clouds to meet the
Lord in the air, and thus we shall be ever with the
Lord." 39

It is but fair to add, however, that these two Pauline
texts have been variously interpreted. St. Chrysostom,
St. Jerome, and apparently also Tertullian,40 taught that
the just who survive on the last day shall be glorified
without having died. St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and

de can. script.). But the Vulgate reading of it. (Cf. Corn., Introd.

version of this verse was never read Gen., p. 456 ff. ; Compend., p. 114

throughout the Catholic Church, be- ff.)."

ing apparently unknown in the 38 Cfr. C. Lattey, Appendix I to i

East, and hence even if the single Cor., p. 52.

verse be a ' part ' of Scripture in 39 i Thess. IV, 14 sqq. (West-

the sense intended by the Council, minster Version).

we are free to reject the Vulgate 40 De Resurrectione Carnis, 41,

42.

DEATH ii

others held that they shall die and slumber a while before
being summoned to the Last Judgment. The majority of
Catholic divines, in view of St. Paul's teaching that all
who have sinned in Adam must die,41 prefer to steer a
middle course.42 They hold that while all men must
die, some will survive until immediately before the Gen
eral Judgment. This teaching is favored by the Roman
Catechism 43 and many modern exegetes.

c) Whichever opinion one may prefer in regard
to the question here at issue, it is certain that even
if Henoch and Elias did not and never will die, the
debt of death (debit urn mortis) rests upon all the
descendants of Adam. "It is held with greater
probability and more commonly/' says St.
Thomas, "that all those who are alive at the com
ing of our Lord, will die and rise again after a
short while. ... If, however, it be true, as oth
ers hold, that they will never die, . . . then we
must say . . . that although they are not to die,
the debt of death is none the less in them, and
that the punishment of death will be remitted by
God, since He can also forgive the punishment due
for actual sins." 44 The only human beings ex-

41 Cfr. Rom. V, 12 sqq. 43 P. I, c. 12, qu. 4.

42 Cfr. Oecumenius, in Migne, 44 Summa Theologica, la 2ae, qu.
P. G., CXVIII, 894: " Istud 'non 81, art. 3, ad x: " Probabilius et
omnes dormiemus ' hoc tnodo opor- convenientius tenetur, quod omnes
tet accipere, quod non dormiemus illi qui in adventu Domini reperien-
diuturna dormitione (TTJV xpoviKTjv tur, morientur et post modicum re-
Koi/uLTiaiv), ut opus sit sefulchro ac surgent, . . . Si tamen hoc verum
solutions ad corruptionem; sed bre- sit, quod alii dicunt, quod illi nun-
vem mortem sustinebunt, qui tune quam morientur, dicendum est quod
reperientur." . . . est tamen in eis reatits mortis.

12 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

empt from this law are Jesus Christ and His
Blessed Mother, though they, too, actually paid
tribute to death.

Thesis II : Death in the present economy is a pun
ishment for sin.

This proposition embodies an article of faith.

Proof. It is the dogmatically defined teach
ing of the Church that our first parents were
endowed with bodily immortality,45 but lost this
prerogative for themselves and their descendants
through sin.46

God solemnly forbade Adam and Eve to eat of
the fruit of a certain tree. "In what day soever
thou shalt eat of it, thou shalt die the death." 4T
By transgressing this command our first parents
incurred death. Thus, in the words of the Apos
tle, "by one man sin entered into this world, and
by sin death ; and so death passed upon all men, in
whom all have sinned." 48 Therefore, "the wages
of sin is death." 49

Long before St. Augustine, as the latter assured
Julian,50 the Fathers considered the causal con
nection between sin and death to be an article of
faith.51

Sed poena aufertur a Deo, qui etiam 47 Gen. II, 17; cfr. Gen. Ill, 19.

peccatorum actualium poenas con- 48 Rom. V, 12.

donare potest," 49 Rom. VI, 23; cfr. i Cor. XV,

45 Cfr. Syn. Milev., A. D. 416, ax, 22.

can. i. BO Contra lulian., 1. II.

46 Cfr. Syn. Arausic. II, can. 2; 6i For the teaching of the Fathers
Cone. Trident., Sess. V, can. 2. on this point see Ginella, De No-

DEATH 13

The atonement wiped out sin and thereby enabled man
to escape the " second death," i. e. eternal damnation.
But the gift of bodily immortality was not restored.52
It is true, death loses the character of a punishment
through Baptism, because, in the words of the Tridentine
Fathers, " there is no condemnation to those who are truly
buried together with Christ by Baptism into death." 63
But the debitum mortis remains as an effect of sin
(poenalitas), which God wisely allows for the purification
of the just. Only in the case of Christ and His Blessed
Mother death was neither a punishment (poena) nor an
effect of sin (poenalitas) ,54

Thesis III : Death ends the state of probation, that
is, after death man can no longer either merit or de
merit.

This thesis embodies what is technically called
"doctrina catholica."

Proof. Death ends the state of pilgrimage
(status viae) and inaugurates the state of final
consummation (status termini), which by its very
definition excludes the possibility of further
merit or demerit. It is true we cannot prove
that this must necessarily be so; but we know it
is so by virtue of a positive divine law.55

The impossibility of acquiring merits after death must

tione atque Origins Mortis, § 9, 53 Cone. Trident., Sess. V, can. 5.

Breslau 1868; for the post-Augus- 54 See Pohle-Preuss. Christology,

tinian period, cfr. Casini, Quid est pp. 72 sqq., and Mariology, pp. 72

Homo?, ed. Scheeben, pp. 59 sqq., sqq.

Mayence 1862. — See also Pohle- 65 That this law is both congru-

Preuss, God the Author of Nature ous and in accordance with nature

and the Supernatural, pp. 286 sqq. is convincingly shown by Ripalda,

62 Cfr. Rom. V, 18 sqq. De Ente Supernatural!, disp. 77.

14 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

not, however, be conceived as a cessation of free will.
At their entrance into the status termini the Elect as
well as the damned once for all decide either for or against
God ; but within the state thus definitively chosen, each re
tains full liberty of action.

a) As Christ ceased to acquire merits after
His death, so a fortiori will man. Death inau
gurates "the night when no man can work/5 56
Ecclesiastes compares man in this respect with a
tree: "If the tree fall to the south, or to the
north, in what place soever it shall fall, there shall
it be." 57 St. Paul 58 says every man will be
judged according as he hath done good or evil "in
the body." 59 St. Cyprian teaches that no one
can do penance or make satisfaction after
death.60 St. Augustine declares : "It is in this
life that all merit or demerit is acquired. ... No
one, then, need hope that he shall obtain after
death that which he has neglected to secure
here." 61 The Catholic Church has embodied this
revealed doctrine in her dogma of the Particular
Judgment.62

56Cfr. John IX, 4; Matth. XXIV, tionis effectus: hie vita out amitti-

42; XXV, 13. tur aut tenetur."

57 Eccles. XI, 3: " Si ceciderit 61 Enchiridion, c. no: " Nemo se

lignum ad austrum aut ad aquilo- speret, quod hie neglexerit, quum

nem, in quocunque loco ceciderit, obierit, apud Deum promereri." —

ibit erit," The unanimous teaching of theolo-

68 2 Cor. V, 10. gians on this point is well developed

69 ra 8ia TOV trw/tcaro?. by Ripalda, De Ente Supernatural,
60 Ad Demetr., 25: " Quando disp. 77, sect, i sqq.

isthinc excessum fuerit, nullus tarn 62 See infra, Ch. II, pp. 18 sqq.

poenitentiae locus, nullus satisfac-

DEATH 15

b) It is the opinion of St. Bonaventure, Ripalda, and
Vasquez that the Elect in Heaven and the poor souls
in Purgatory can merit and apply for the benefit of
others certain praemia accident alia. But this assumption
is opposed to the analogy of faith. The power of inter
cession which the just wield in the world beyond is based
entirely upon merits previously acquired in the state of
pilgrimage.63

Hirscher's view that those who, after wavering a
long time between God and the world, finally die in
the state of mortal sin, will be allowed to make their
final decision in the next world, is contrary to the dog
matic teaching of the Church.64

c) From what we have said it follows that nothing is so
well calculated to demonstrate the hollowness of the world
and to preserve us from becoming unduly attached to
it, as the pious consideration of death. Our earthly life
is merely a " pilgrimage," G5 a " journey," 66 and we are to
make use of the things of this world only in so far as
they aid, or at least do not hinder us in attaining our
supernatural destiny.07 There is much in the thought of
death to comfort us. Death ends all our sufferings and
trials.68 But the hour when we shall be called hence is un
certain,69 and therefore we must watch and pray and strive
always to be in the state of sanctifying grace. Mortal
sin is the only thing that can prevent us from attaining our
last end, which is the beatific vision of God.70 If we are

63 Cfr. St. Thomas, Comment, in Theologie der Vorseit, Vol. II, 2nd
Sent., Ill, dist. 18, qu. i, art. 2: ed., pp. 427 sqq., Miinster 1872.

" Beati non stint in statu acquirendi 65 2 Cor. V, 6.

secundum aliquld sui; et ideo nee 66 Jos. XXIII, 14; Wisd. Ill, 3.

sibi nee aliis merentur, quia, quod 67 Wisd. V, i sqq.

impetrant modo nobis, contingit ex 682 Cor. IV, 16 sqq.; Apoc. XIV,

hoc quod prius, dutn viverent, 13.

meruerunt ut hoc impetrarent." 69 Matth. XXIV, 42; Luke XII, 39

64 Hirscher's error is refuted by sq., and elsewhere.
Father Joseph Kleutgen, S.J., in Die 70 Cfr. Luke XXI, 34.

16 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

in the state of grace, we can face death unflinchingly.71
That the fear of death is so deeply ingrained in human na
ture,72 is owing partly to sin and partly to the instinct of
self-preservation.73 The immortality which our first par
ents enjoyed in Paradise was a free gift and its loss is
a punishment. Death and the fear of death are entirely
natural.74 Nevertheless, the thought of death should not
discourage, but rather incite us to spend the short span
of existence granted us here below for the benefit of our
own souls and those near and dear to us.75 We must not,
because life is short, seek sinful pleasures after the ex
ample of the ancient pagans, who had no hope of
Heaven.7* On the other hand, we should not despise
the things of this world. It would be folly to neg
lect our earthly affairs in order to devote all our time
to works of piety. Every loyal Catholic should, on
the contrary, do his share in advancing the interests of
true progress and culture and thereby help to disprove the
oft- repeated calumny that the Church is inimical to the
world.77 The more we accomplish in this world, if
we have the right intention, the more confidently may we
meet death. Ora et labora!78

READINGS: — Ginella, De Notione atque Origins Mortis,
Breslau 1868. — Card. Bellarmine, De Arte bene Moriendi, 1620

71 Phil. I,2i sqq. 1862; F. Hettinger, Apologie des

722 Cor. V, 4; H'eb. II, 15. Christentums, Vol. II, pth ed., P. i,

73 Cfr. St. Augustine, Serm., 172, pp. 23 sqq., Freiburg 1907.

c. i : " Mortem horret non opinio, 77 Cfr. Leo XIII, Encyclical " 1m-

sed natura." mortale Dei," Nov. i, 1885: " Imo

74 Cfr. St. Thomas, Suvnma Theol., inertiae desidiaeque inimica Ecclesia
i a 2ae, qu. 164, art. i: " Mors est magnopere vult, ut hominum ingenia

naturalis propter conditionem naturae uberes ferant exercitatione et cultura

et poenalis propter amissionem di- fructus,"

vini beneficii praeservantis a morte." 78 Cfr. A. A. Cataneo, Vorberei-

75 Cfr. Eccles. IX, 10. tung auf einen guten Tod, 3 vols.,

76 Cfr. Reisacker, Der Todesge- Ratisbon 1888-91; Weber, Evange-
danke bei den Griechen, Treves Wwm und Arbeit, Freiburg 1898.

DEATH 17

(German tr., Die Kunst zu sterben, by F. Hense, 2nd ed., Fader-
born 1888). — C. M. Kaufmann, Die lenseitshoffnungen der
Griechen und Romer nach den Sepulkralinschriften, Freiburg
1899. — IDEM, Die sepulkralen Jenseitsdenkmaler der Antike und
des Urchristentums, Mayence 1900.— S. J. Hunter, S.J., Outlines
of Dogmatic Theology, Vol. Ill, pp. 425-429.— R. W. Mackenna,
The Adventure of Death, New York 1917.

CHAPTER II

THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT

SECTION I
EXISTENCE OF A PARTICULAR JUDGMENT

i. DEFINITION. — By "judgment'' we mean the
investigation, sentence, and final order of a civil or
criminal court. God pronounces judgment upon
the soul immediately after its separation from
the body. This Judgment is called Particular, to
distinguish it from the General Judgment which
takes place at the end of the world.

The essential point in the Catholic dogma of the Par
ticular Judgment is that the soul becomes aware of God's
final decision immediately after death. In the General
Judgment the emphasis rests rather upon the sentence
as such. The Particular Judgment is not necessarily a
formal sentence. It may be merely a clear perception
of guilt or innocence, whereby the soul is moved
of its own accord to hasten either to Heaven, or Hell,
or Purgatory, according to its deserts.1 The Scriptural

1 Cfr. St. Thomas, Sutnma Theol., carnis, per quod in statu viae de-

Supplem,, qu. 69, art. 2: " Sicut tinebantur, statim praemium conse-

corpus per gravitatem vel levitatem qunntur vel poenam, nisi aliquid im-

statim fertur in locum suum, nisi pro- pediat. . . . Et quia locus deputatur

hibcatur, its animae soluto vinculo animabus secundum congruentiam

18

THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT 19

" Book of Judgment," with its record of good and
evil deeds, is a metaphor,2 just like the description which
pious writers give of the judgment scene, where the
devil accuses, while the guardian angel either confirms
the accusation or defends his former client.

Where the Particular Judgment will take place no
one knows. Probably each soul is judged on the spot
where it leaves the body. Though Divine Revelation does
not expressly say so, we may assume that the God-man
Jesus Christ will act as judge both at the Particular and
at the General Judgment.3

2. PROOF FROM REVELATION. — Sacred Scrip
ture teaches that the fate of each departed soul is
decided before the General Judgment. If this is
so, there must be a Particular preceding the Gen
eral Judgment. Calvin 4 and the Chiliasts hold
that the fate of the departed souls remains un
decided till the second coming of Christ. The
Hypnopsychites maintain that these souls spend
the interval between death and the General Res
urrection in a state of unconscious or semi-con
scious sleep, — a view which, Father Hunter
thinks, is shared by most Protestants who have
any conviction about the matter at all.5 Eu-

praemii vcl poenae, statim ut anima tnile est, in eo instanti animam cogno-

absolvitur a corpore, vel in infernutn scere sese iudicari et salvari vel

mcrgitur vel ad caclos evolat, nisi im- damnari imperio et efficientia non

pediatur aliquo rcatu, quo oporteat solum Dei, sed etiam hominis

evolationem differri, ut prius anima Christi."

purgctur." 4 Instit., Ill, 25.

2 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Civitate 6 Cfr S. J. Hunter, S.J., Outlines
Dei, XX, 14. of Dogmatic Theology, Vol. Ill, p.

3 Cfr. Suarez, De Myst. Vitae 430.
Christi, disp. 52, sect. 2: " Verisi-

20 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

sebius tells of a strange sect, called Thnetopsy-
chites, who believed that the disembodied souls
await the General Judgment in a state of tempo
rary annihilation.6 The teaching of the Church
is that the fate of every man is determined some
time before the General Judgment.7

a) St. Paul says: "It is appointed unto men
once to die, and after this the judgment/' 8 This
text may be quoted in favor of our thesis, though
it is not conclusive because we do not know for
certain whether the Apostle refers to the Particu
lar or to the General Judgment.9 A more con
vincing proof for our dogma is furnished by the
parable of Lazarus, Luke XVI, 22: "And the
rich man also died, and he was buried in hell/'
Dives must have been judged before he was pun
ished. The same is true of Judas, who, according
to the sacred writer, "went to his own place/' 10
Ecclesiastes says that the body "returns into its
earth, from whence it was, while the spirit re
turns to God who gave it/' n

b) The teaching of the Fathers is in full ac
cord with that of Sacred Scripture. St. Augus
tine (to quote but one of them) says the departed
souls are judged as they leave the body and before

6 Hist. Eccles., VI, 37. 8 Cfr. Estius i. h. I.

7 V, infra, Sect. 2. 10 ". . . ut abiret in locum suwn
8Heb. IX, 27: " Statutum est (ds rbv roirov rbv idiov.) Act. I,

hominibus, semel mori. post hoc 25.

5e TOVTO) autem indicium." n Eccles. XII, 7.

THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT 21

they appear at the final judgment, which takes
place at the end of the world.12

A further confirmation of our dogma will be
found below in Section 2, where it is shown that
the Particular Judgment takes place immediately
after death. If the fate of the departed souls is
determined immediately after death, it follows
that they are judged immediately after death.

12 De Anima et eius Origins, II, tarn redditis corporibus iudicari atque

4,8: " Rectissime et valde salubriter in ipsa, in qua hie vixerunt carne,

creditur, iudicari animas, quum de torqueri sive glorificari." (Migne,

corporibus exierint, antequam veniant P. L., XLIV, 498).
ad illud iudicium, quo eas oportet

SECTION 2

TIME OF THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT

i. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOGMA.
— The Catholic dogma that the soul is judged im
mediately after death has passed through a long
process of clarification in the minds of the faith
ful. There was no official definition of it by the
Church until the Middle Ages.

a) In the primitive Church vague ideas were
current in regard to the immediate fate of the de
parted.

Not to speak of the Chiliasts, the Hypnopsychites, and
the Thnetopsychites, even some orthodox writers har
bored erroneous notions concerning the fate of the soul
after death. Thus St. Justin Martyr seems to have held
that the disembodied souls enjoy a natural beatitude in
the interval between death and the General Resurrec
tion.1 St. Irenaeus imagined them dwelling in a sort of
paradise (locus amoenitatis) distinct from Heaven.2 Ter-
tullian believed that the martyrs entered into the beatific
vision immediately after death.3 St. Hilary speaks of a
temporary imprisonment (custodia) of the soul.4

It would, however, be wrong to suppose that these Pa-

1 Dial., Bo. 8 De Anima, 55.

2 Adv. Haereses, V, 31, 2. 4 In Ps., 120, n. 16.

22

THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT 23

tristic writers erred in regard to the substance of the
dogma. There are many passages in their writings which,
at least virtually, inculcate the orthodox view, as when
they speak of our Lord's descent into Hell and the inter
cession of the saints.

b) It was the universal belief of the early
Christians that the wicked go to Hell immediately
after death.

The dread sentence, " Depart from me, you cursed,
into everlasting fire," 5 was regarded as the confirmation
of a previous judgment and an accentuation of the pun
ishment imposed on both the soul and its risen body.
In accordance with this ancient belief, Benedict XII de
fined in his dogmatic Bull " Benedictus Deus" A. D. 1336,
" that . . . the souls of those who depart this life in the
state of mortal sin descend into Hell immediately after
death and are there subject to infernal torments."6 A
similar passage occurs in the profession of faith sub
mitted by the Greek Emperor Michael Palaeologus at the
Council of Lyons, A. D. 12747 which was embodied in
the Decree of Union adopted at Florence, in I439-8

c) The clarification of ideas with regard to the
fate of the just proceeded more slowly.

It was believed at an early date that the just, too, are

B Matth. XXV, 41. descendunt, mox [t. e. statim] in

Q " Definimus quod . . . aniinae infernum descenders, poenis tamen

descendentium in actuali peccato disparibus puniendas." (Denzinger-

tnortali max post mortem suam ad Bannwart, n. 464).

inferno, descendunt. ubi poenis in- 8 The bearing of this dogmatic de-

fernalibus cruciantur." (Denzinger- cree on the lot of unbaptized in-

Bannwart, n. 531). fants is explained in Pohle-Preuss,

7 " Illorum autem animas, qui in God the Author of Nature and the

mortali peccato vel cum solo originali Supernatural, pp. 304 sq.

24 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

judged immediately after death; but there was uncer
tainty as to whether they were forthwith admitted to
the vision of the Blessed Trinity or enjoyed some inferior
kind of beatitude. This uncertainty continued even after
the Second Council of Lyons (1274) had declared that
" the souls of the just are received immediately into
Heaven." 9 As late as 1330 certain Franciscan theolo
gians are said to have taught that the souls of the just
enjoy the vision of Christ as man (in forma servi), but
that the beatific vision of God (in forma Dei) was
reserved until after the Last Judgment. It is but fair to
add, however, that Wadding denies this charge against his
fellow-religious.10 If the Franciscans really held the
opinion in question, they shared their mistake with Pope
John XXII, who about 1331 privately taught the same
doctrine.11 In 1336 Pope Benedict XII, in his afore
mentioned Bull, defined that those who depart this life in
the state of sanctifying grace " behold the divine essence
intuitively and face to face." 12 The Council of Florence
cleared away the last remaining doubt by adding the
words : " They clearly behold God Himself, one and
tri-une, as He is." 13

2. PROOF FROM REVELATION. — Sacred Scrip
ture teaches that the fate of every man is de
cided immediately after death and that the ulti-

9 " Illorum \_scil. iustorum] ant- 622 sqq., Freiburg 1890.

mas mox in caelum recipi." (Den- 12 ". . . vident divinam essen-

zinger-Bannwart, n. 464) . tiam visione intuitiva et etiam fad-

10 Annales Minorum, ad annum ali." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 531).
1331, 2nd ed., Vol. VII, p. 118. 13 ". . . et intueri dare ipsum

11 He did not, however, make an Deum tritium et unum, sicuti est."
ex cathedra decision on the subject, (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 693). — Cfr.
as the opponents of papal infalli- Pohle-Preuss, God: His Knowabillty,
bility assert. Cfr. Hefele, Concili- Essence, and Attributes, 2nd ed., p.
engeschichte, Vol. VI, 2nd ed., pp. 108, St. Louis 1914.

THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT 25

mate condition of the Blessed and the damned
respectively is essentially the same before and
after the General Resurrection.

a) Ecclus. XI, 28: "It is easy before God in
the day of death to reward every one according
to his ways." 14 If God rewards every one ac
cording to his deserts "in the day of death," He
must send the souls of the just to Heaven and
those of the wicked to Hell immediately after their
separation from the body. This is confirmed in
the parable which says that "the rich man also
died, and was buried in Hell." 15

St. Hilary writes : " Lazarus was carried by angels to
the place prepared for the Elect in Abraham's bosom,
whereas Dives was buried forthwith in the place of pun
ishment." 10 St. Gregory the Great teaches : " As beati
tude causes the Elect to be glad, so, it is necessary to be
lieve, fire torments the wicked from the day of their
death." 17 St. John Chrysostom expresses the same
thought in a striking simile : " As criminals are dragged
in chains from jail to the seat of judgment, so the
souls of the departed are forthwith brought before that
terrible judgment seat, burdened with the various punish
ments due to their sins." 18

b) The fate of the just is illustrated by the ex-

14 Ecclus. XI, 28: " Quoniatn fa- torutn et in Abrahae sinu locaverunt,

die est coram Deo in die obitus re~ alium statim poenae regio [scil. fn-

tribuere unicuique secundum vias fernum] suscepit."

suas." 17 Dial., IV, 28: " Sicut electos

10 Luke XXIII, 43. beatitude laetificat, ita credi necesst

16 In Ps., 2, n. 48: " Testes nobis est quod a die exitus sui ignis repro-

[sunt] evangelicus dives et pauper, bos exurat."

quorum umim angeli in sedibus bea- 18 Horn, in Matth., XIV, n. 4.

26 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

ample of Lazarus, who "was carried by the angels
into Abraham's bosom" immediately after his
demise,19 and by Christ's promise to the good
thief, "This day thou shalt be with me in para
dise." 20 The terms "Abraham's bosom" and
"paradise," strictly speaking, signify the limbus
Patrum, but we know that since the Ascension of
our Lord the limbo has made way for Heaven.

An even more convincing text is 2 Cor. V, 6
sqq. : "We know that, while we are in the body
TW aco/«m) we are absent from the Lord
a.™ rod Kvpi'ov) y for we walk by faith, and
not by sight. But we are confident and have a
good will to be absent rather from the body and to
be present with the Lord." To "be in the body"
means to "walk by faith," to "be present with the
Lord," to enjoy the beatific vision, for which the
Apostle betrays such a keen desire in his Epis
tle to the Philippians (I, 21 sqq.). The only
means of attaining this end is "absence from the
body," /. e. death. Consequently, according to
St. Paul, the Elect enter upon their celestial in
heritance immediately after death.

The Fathers held this dogma implicitly rather than
explicitly. St. Cyprian says : " What a dignity it is,
and what a security, ... in a moment to close the eyes
with which men and the world are looked upon, and at

19 Luke XVI, 22. 20 Luke XXIII, 43.

THE PARTICULAR JUDGMENT 27

once to open them to behold God and Christ ! " 21 The
Acts of the Martyrs and many ancient liturgies testify to
the belief of the primitive Church that those who lay
down their lives for the true faith immediately enter
into Heaven.22 That the early Christians held the same
belief with regard to all the just is evident from the
fact that they prayed to other saints besides the martyrs
for their intercession in Heaven.

Incidentally it may be noted that the dogma with which
we are dealing involves another, namely our Lord's
descent into Hell. After the death of Christ His soul
went down into Limbo to deliver the souls of the just
from the temporary punishment they were suffering, and
to introduce them to the beatific vision of God.23 To
deny that these souls now enjoy the beatific vision would
involve a rejection of the dogma of Christ's descent into
Hell.24

21 De Exhort. Martyr., n. 13: S. Hilarii, § 6, sect. 3, n. 219.
" Quanta est dignitas et quanta se- 23 Cfr. Pohlc-Preuss, Soteriology,
curitas, . . . claudere in momenta 2nd ed., pp. 91 sqq., St. Louis 1916.
oculos, quibus homines videbantur 24 Cfr. H. Hurter, S.J., Compen-
et mundus, et aperiri eosdem statim, dium Theol. Dogmat., Vol. Ill, thes.
ut Deus videatur et Christus." 268.

22 Cfr. Constant, Praef. ad Opera

CHAPTER III

HEAVEN

SECTION i

THE EXISTENCE OF HEAVEN

i. DEFINITION. — a) Etymologically the Latin
word for "Heaven" 1 means the expanse of sky
above the earth, which resembles a great dome or
arch apparently containing the sun, moon, and
stars. The Church employs the term caelum to
signify the abode of God and the Blessed, with
the emphasis upon the state rather than the place
in which they find themselves.

The Bible refers to Heaven both as a place and as a
state (eternal life, eternal rest, the kingdom of God,
the joy of the Lord, etc.). In the language of St. Paul,
to enter into Heaven is to " be present with the Lord," 2
which can mean nothing else but a spiritual occupation
engaging the highest faculties of the soul and culminating
in the knowledge and love of God. As Heaven is man's
final goal (status termini), it must be identical with
the beatitude which comes to the created mind from the

\ Caelum = a hollow sphere; 22 Cor. V, 8.

Graek, ovpav6s = vault, ceiling.

28

HEAVEN 29

contemplation and love of the divine essence and perfec
tions (status beatitudinis) .

b) To arrive at a real, as opposed to the nom
inal, definition of Heaven, therefore, we must
ascertain in what precisely the happiness of the
Elect consists.

Boethius defines Heaven as "a state made per
fect by the accumulation of all good things/' 3
St. Thomas says it is "the ultimate perfection of
rational or intellectual nature/' 4 These defi
nitions, while correct, are not sufficiently specific,
for a "state made perfect by the accumulation of
all good things" and the "ultimate perfection of
rational nature" need not necessarily be supernat
ural.

The happiness produced by the knowledge and love
of God would not be the same in a natural state of beati
tude as it is in Heaven. In proposing to man a supernat
ural end, the Creator abolished his purely natural destiny,
which consisted in an abstractive knowledge and a nat
ural love of God. In the present economy the rational
creature has no choice between natural and supernatural
beatitude. To miss the latter means to miss both. Hence
Heaven, in the Christian sense, must be a state of super
natural beatitude.

In what does this supernatural beatitude consist?

c) The supernatural beatitude of Heaven fun-

8 De Consolatione Philosophiae, 4 " Ultima perfectio rationales sive

III, 2: " Status omnium bonorum intellectualis naturae." (Summa
congregatione perfectus." Theol., ia, qu. 62, art. i).

30 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

damentally consists in the intuitive vision of the
Divine Essence (visio Dei intuitiva), as opposed
to the purely abstractive and analogical knowl
edge which man has of God here below.

St. Paul describes the difference between these
two kinds of knowledge as follows: "Now we
see in a mirror, obscurely ; but then [we shall see]
face to face. Now I know in part; then shall I
know fully, even as I have been fully known [by
God] ." 5 As the Divine Essence subsists in three
distinct Persons, the beatific vision involves an in
tuitive knowledge of the Trinity. Needless to
say, the human intellect cannot attain to this ex
alted knowledge by its own power, but requires
for this purpose a special "light of glory." 6

The intuitive vision of God is essentially beati
fic, that is, it renders man infinitely happy.

Thomists and Scotists have been engaged in
a long-standing controversy on the question
whether beatitude is in the intellect or in the will.
The two views are not incompatible, in fact, it is
only by judiciously combining them that we ar
rive at the whole truth, vis.: that the knowledge
of God is the essence of beatitude, while the love
of God is its form and goal.

5 i Cor. XIII, 12: " Videmus erimus. Scimus guoniam, quum
nunc per speculum in aenigmate: apparuerit, similes ei enmus: quo-
tune autem facie ad faciem. Nunc mam videbimus eum sicuti est."
cognosce ex parte: tune autem co- 6 Lumen gloriae. — On the lumen
gnoscam sicut et cognitus sum." Cfr. gloriae see Pohle-Preuss, God: His
i John, III, 2: "Nunc filii Dei Knowability, Essence, and Attri-
sumus: et nondum apparuit quid butes, p. 146.

HEAVEN 31

d) Perfect beatitude must include the will as
well as the intellect. That beatitude is de
scribed more often as knowledge than as love
is owing to the fact that whereas the love we
shall have for God in Heaven is substantially
identical with the love we have for Him on
earth,7 the knowledge we shall have of Him there
differs essentially from the abstractive and an
alogical knowledge which is vouchsafed us here.
This does not, however, prevent the visio beatified
from culminating in a rapturous love, free from
imperfection, whereby the creature is made un
speakably happy (amor beatificus). As faith is
transformed into vision and hope changes to pos
session, love grows perfect and thus man becomes
completely happy.

2. PROOF FROM REVELATION. — Various hereti
cal errors have been current at one time or other
concerning the nature of Heaven. Certain Ar
menian writers of the fourteenth century claimed
that the Elect know God in an abstractive man
ner only. The Palamites or Hesychasts, a school
of Greek mystics who flourished about the
same time on Mount Athos, taught that the di
vine attributes are mere radiations of God's Es
sence, which become solidified as it were, by tak
ing on the shape of an uncreated light, percepti
ble to the Blessed by means of bodily vision.8

7 Cfr. i Cor. XIII, 8 sqq. 8 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, op. cit. (note

6), p. 146.

32 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

Rosmini all but denied the beatific vision by say
ing that its object is not the Divine Essence, but
God in His relation to the outside world.9 The
question was authoritatively decided by Benedict
XII (1336) and the Council of Florence

(I439)-10

a) For the proof from Revelation see Pohle-

Preuss, God: His Knowability , Essence, and At
tributes, pp. 80 sqq.

b) The beatitude of Heaven would be incom
plete if it did not include freedom from evil; —
which is but another way of saying that the
Blessed can neither suffer pain nor commit sin.

Evil may be physical or moral. Physical evil disturbs
the order of nature ; moral evil interferes with the law by
which God governs the universe. Physical evils are, e. g.,
ignorance, sorrow, pain, sickness, and death. Moral evils :
sin and concupiscence (fomes peccati). In Heaven there
is neither physical nor moral evil. Cfr. Apoc. VII, 16:
" They shall no more hunger nor thirst ; the sun shall not
oppress them, nor any heat." Apoc. XXI, 4 : " And
[God] shall wipe away every tear from their eyes, and
death shall be no more, neither shall mourning or wail
ing or pain be any more, because the first things are passed
away."

The greatest of all evils is sin, and therefore the
Blessed can no longer sin. As this truth was denied by
Origen, it requires special proof. In saying that there

» Prop. Damnat. a Leone XIII, in Schiffini, Disput. Metaph. Spec.,

prop. 38-40. The full text of the Vol. I, pp. 432 sqq.

decree of the Holy Office condemn- 10 V. supra, Ch. II, Sect. 2, pp. 23

ing Rosmini's teaching will be found and 24.

HEAVEN 33

is no pain or sorrow in Heaven the inspired author of the
Apocalypse cannot have meant physical sorrow only.
Mental sorrow caused by the loss of sanctifying grace is
far deeper and keener than mere physical pain. More
over, the beatitude of Heaven, being eternal, is incom
patible with sin. As St. Augustine aptly observes, the
happiness of the Elect would be incomplete if it did not
exclude sin.11

Whether the so-called impeccability of the Blessed in
Heaven is due to a purely extrinsic confirmation in grace,
or rooted in the essence of the beatific vision, is a con
troverted question. St. Thomas declares : " They who
are already blessed in Heaven, apprehend the object of
true happiness as making their happiness and last end:
otherwise their desire would not be set at rest in that
object, and they would not be blessed and happy. The
will of the Blessed, therefore, cannot swerve from the
object of true happiness." 12 This constancy of the will
is rooted in an ineradicable love of God, which, being
based on a true knowledge of His essence, has neither the
power nor the will to offend Him.13 However, there is
this much truth in the opposing view of the Scotists, that
the beatific vision and impeccability, though connected by
an intrinsic natural bond, are not essentially one, but
could be dissociated by a miracle. The same may be said

11 Cfr. Opusc. Imperf. c. lulian., sent beati. Quicunque igitur beati
V, 61: " Donabit earn [soil, impec- sunt, voluntatem deftectere non pos-
cantiam] veritas, ut sit certa securi- sunt ab eo, in quo est vera beatitudo:
tas, sine qua non potest esse ilia, cut non possunt igitur perversam vo-
non est aliquid addendum, iam plena luntatem liabere."

nostra felicitas." 13 Cfr. St. Gregory the Great,

12 Summa c. Gentiles, IV, 92: Moral., V, 27: "Angelica natura
" Sed ilH qui iam beati sunt, ap- in semetipsa mutabilis est, quam mu-
prehendunt id, in quo vere beatitudo tabilitatem vincit per hoc. quod ei
est, sub ratione bcatitudinis et ultimi qui semper idem est, vinculis amoris
finis; alias in hoc non acquiesceret colligatur."

appetitus et per consequens non es~

34 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

of the beatific vision and sorrow : these, too, are naturally
but not metaphysically incompatible.

3. THE OBJECT OF THE BEATIFIC VISION. —
What do the Blessed in Heaven actually behold
through the lumen gloriae? To answer this ques
tion we must distinguish between the Divine Es
sence and the things existing outside of it. The
Divine Essence itself is the object and source of
what is known as beatitudo essentialis sive
primaria, or beatitudo aurea. That secon
dary beatitude which the Scholastics term acci-
dentalis, results from the contemplation of beauti
ful objects existing outside of the Divine Essence.
The essential beatitude of the Blessed consists
in an intuitive vision of the tri-une God with His
various attributes.14 To what objects the acci
dental beatitude of the Blessed extends cannot be
exactly determined.

a) From St. Paul's teaching in I Cor. XIII,
9 sqq. we know that the Blessed clearly behold
in Heaven whatever they embraced with theo
logical faith on earth. Faith is transformed into
knowledge.

It follows that the Blessed have a clear, though not an

14 Cfr. Condi. Florent., 1439, dem exutae corporibus, . . . sunt

Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 693: " //- purgatae, in caelum max recipi et

lorumque animas, qui post baptis- intueri dare ipsum Deutn tritium et

mum susceptum nullam omnino pec- unitm, sicuti est, pro meritorum ta-

cati maculam incurrerunt, illas etiam, men diversitate alium alio perfec-

quae post contractam peccati tnacu- tins."
lam, vel in suis corporibus, vel eis-

HEAVEN 35

adequate, knowledge of all the theological mysteries (the
Trinity, the Hypostatic Union of the two natures in
Christ, the Holy Eucharist), and their mutual relations.
A fortiori they must have a knowledge of the lesser
mysteries of our holy religion, e. g. in what manner the
Sacraments produce their effects, how the Holy Ghost
operates in the Church and in the souls of the faithful, the
nature of actual and sanctifying grace, the number of
the Elect, predestination and reprobation, and many other
things of which we on earth have at best only an inkling.

b) The beatific vision also involves a knowl
edge of the causal relations between God and all
existing and possible creatures. This knowledge,
however, is not shared equally by all the Blessed,
but varies in clearness and depth in proportion to
merit.

God is the cause of His creatures in a threefold re
spect: (i) as their pattern-exemplar (causa exemplaris),
i. e. the model according to which they are fashioned ; (2)
as the efficient cause (causa efftciens) of both nature and
the supernatural; and (3) as the final end and object
(causa finalls) towards which all creatures consciously or
unconsciously tend.15 In all three of these respects the
Blessed in Heaven perceive not only God's manifold re
lations to His creatures, but also the why and wherefore
thereof, because knowledge of the Divine Essence neces
sarily includes knowledge of the divine ideas (though not
of all), and the external glory of God, i. e. the admiration,
love, and praise of His creatures, grows in proportion to
their knowledge of His essence.

15 Cfr. Rom. XI, 36: "Ex ipso, et per ipsum, ft in ipso sunt omnie."

36 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

c) The beatitude enjoyed by the Blessed in
Heaven is (per accidens) increased by their inti
mate association with the angels and saints.

The inhabitants of Heaven do not lead a solitary life,
but are associated together in a mystic body called the
Communion of Saints (communio sanctorum). They
are members of the triumphant Church 1G and admiringly
contemplate the angels in their hierarchical gradations as
well as the various degrees of dignity and happiness mani
fested in their glorified f ellowmen.17 Their knowledge is
not, however, limited to heavenly things, but extends to
Purgatory and this earth, comprising especially those
things which are closely related to the supernatural order
in general and the position occupied therein by each heav
enly denizen in particular. They devote special attention,
of course, to whatever pertains to the worship and the
intercession of the Saints. Bellarmine thinks that they
derive their knowledge of these things from their official
position in the celestial hierarchy rather than from a
special revelation.

d) Various bonds connect the Blessed in
Heaven with the scene of their labors, battles,
temptations, and victories here below.

It was here they acquired that more or less pro
found knowledge of science and art which is not lost but
clarified, deepened, and ennobled in Heaven.18 Here they

16 Cfr. Heb. II, 23. et bonitatem Dei in singulis admiren-

17 Cfr. Lessius, De Summo Bono, tur et laudent."

II, 9, 61: "Par enim est, ut civita- is Cfr. i Cor. XIII, 10: "Eva-
tern suam et domum Patris sui et cuabitur quod ex parte est."
fratres suos et cives optime norint,

HEAVEN 37

still have relatives, friends, and descendants, in whom
their former interest continues unabated, for Death does
not destroy our earthly relations, but raises them to a
higher sphere, in which the salvation of souls outweighs
all other considerations. This knowledge the Elect can
not obtain from personal observation, as they lack the
organs of sense, but it is communicated to them by the
Divine Logos, in whom they behold all things.10

4. THE "DOWRY" OF THE BLESSED. — By the
dowry of the Blessed (dotes beatorum) the Scho
lastic theologians understand the supernatural
endowments of the soul in the beatific state.

a) Like the mystic marriage of the soul with Christ,
the dotes beatorum must be conceived allegorically. As a
dowry is not the matrimonial bond, but something which
precedes marriage ; so the dowry that Christ bestows on
His mystic spouse is a habit which precedes the beatific
vision and renders it more enjoyable.20 The dowry of
the Blessed is, however, purely accidental, and must not
be confounded with the essence of the beatific vision,
which consists in the intuitive knowledge of God.21

b) The gifts that constitute the dowry of the Blessed
are partly of the body and partly of the soul. The
dowry of the body is identical with the properties de
scribed infra, in Part II, Ch. II, Sect. 3. The dowry
of the soul consists of the three gifts of contemplation,

19 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa c. Rome 1888.

Gentiles, III, 50 — On the relations 20 Cfr. St. Thomas, Comment, in

of the Elect to the objects of the bea- Sent., IV, dist. 49, qu. 4, art. 2.

tine vision the -student may consult 21 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,

Franzelin, De Deo Uno, thes. 18, Supplement., qu. 95, art. 2.

THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

possession, and fruition. Contemplation (visio) corre
sponds to faith; possession (comprehensio), to hope; fru
ition (fruitio), to charity. All three converge in the
light of glory, which dispels the obscurity of faith, in
sures the eternal possession of God, and guarantees the
enjoyment of His love.22

22 St. Thomas rejects the parallel
drawn by some writers between the
dowry of the Blessed and the three
principal faculties of the soul. He
says: ". . . quia irascibilis et con-
cupiscibilis non sunt in parte in-
tellectiva, sed in parte sensitiva,
dotes autem animae ponuntur in
ipsa mente." (Supplement., qu. 95,
art. 5). — The question whether the
soul of Christ possesses the dotes
beatorum he answers as follows:
" Vel omnino non convenit Christo
ratio dotis vel non ita proprie, sicut
aliis sanctis; ea tamen, quae dotes di-
cuntur, excellentissime ei con-

•veniunt." (Ibid., art. 3). Of the
angels he adds (ibid., art. 4) :
" Exigitur eniin inter sponsum et
sponsam naturae conformitas, ut scil.
sint eiusdem speciei. Hoc autem
tnodo homines cum Christo con-
veniunt, inquantum naturam huma-
nam assumpsit. . . . Angelis autem
non est conformis secundum unita-
tem speciei neque secundum naturam
divinam neque secundum humanam,
et ideo ratio dotis non ita proprie
convenit angelis sicut hominibus." —
The Scholastic doctrine of the dotes
beatorum is of no great importance.

SECTION 2

THE PROPERTIES OF HEAVEN

Heaven is supernatural and eternal, and has
various degrees of happiness for the Blessed, cor
responding to the higher or lower measure of
grace with which each is endowed and the in
timacy of his union with God.1

i. ETERNITY OF HEAVEN. — The eternity of
Heaven was in olden times denied by the Origen-
ists. Benedict XII denned it as an article of faith :
"This same vision and fruition . . . continues
and will continue till the final judgment, and
thenceforward forever." 2 The dogma is as old
as Christianity, for the Apostles' Creed says : "I
believe ... in life everlasting."

a) Sacred Scripture employs many beautiful
figures to illustrate the perpetuity of Heaven.
Thus it compares Heaven to "a treasure which
faileth not," which "no thief approacheth, nor
moth corrupteth ;" 3 a reception "into everlast-

1 On the supernatural character tiuabitur usque ad finale indicium,
of the beatific vision see Pohle- et tune usque in sempiternum."
Preuss, God: His Knowability, Es- (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 530^
sence, and Attributes, pp. 80 sqq. 3 Luke XII, 33: ". .

2 Cfr. the Bull " Benedictus," tion deficientem in cael

A. D. 1336: " Eadem visio et fru- non appropriat, neque fineScorrum-
itio . . continuata existit et conti- pit."

39 : LIBRA;

40 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

ing dwellings ;" 4 "a never fading crown of
glory ;" 5 an "everlasting kingdom/'6 St. John
frequently refers to the abode of the Blessed as
"eternal life." 7

b) The Fathers conceived Heaven as unending.
Heaven must be everlasting, says St. Augustine,
because no happiness could be perfect that would
be overshadowed by the fear of a possible cessa
tion or loss.8 St. Thomas defines eternity as an
intrinsic and essential quality without which
Heaven would not be Heaven. The opinion of
some of the later Scotists that eternity is an acci
dental quality of beatitude, is untenable.

2. VARIOUS DEGREES OF HAPPINESS AMONG
THE BLESSED. — The ancient heretic Jovinian held
that virtues and vices, merits and demerits, re
wards and punishments are all alike. Luther, in
accordance with his false theory of justification,
contended that glory as well as grace are abso
lutely equal in all men and do not admit of degrees.
The Catholic Church, on the contrary, holds as
an article of faith that there are among the
Blessed various degrees of happiness, in propor-

4 Luke XVI, 9: "Facile vdbis 7 Vita aeterna, fo>^ atuvtos.
amicos de mammona iniquitatis: ut, 8 De Civ. Dei, XII, 20: "Quid
quum defeceritis, recipiant vos in enim ilia beatitudine falsius atque
aeterna tabernacula." fallacius, ubi nos futures miseros out

5 i Pet. V, 4: " Quum apparu- in tanta veritatis luce nesciamus out
erit princeps p-astorum, percipletis in summa felicitatis arce timeamus?
immarcescibilem gloriae coronam." . . . Atque ita spes nostrae infelicita-

e 2 Pet I, 1 1 : " aeternum regnwn tis est felix et felicitatis infelix."
Domini."

HEAVEN 41

tion to merit. "One is more perfect than the
other according to the different merits of each,"
says e. g. the Decretum Unionis of Florence.9

a) This teaching agrees perfectly with Sacred
Scripture. Our Lord Himself intimates that
there are various degrees of happiness among
the Elect, when He says: "In my Father's
house there are many mansions." St. Paul ex
pressly declares : "Each shall receive his own re
ward according to his own toil." And: "He
who soweth sparingly, shall also reap sparingly,
and he who soweth in blessings, shall also reap
blessings."12 And again: "The glory of the
heavenly is different from that of the earthly.
There is the glory of the sun, and the glory of the
moon, and the glory of the stars; for star dif-
fereth from star in glory. And so it is with the
resurrection of the dead." 13

The Fathers express themselves in similar terms. St.
Polycarp bravely assures his heathen judge : " The more
I suffer, the greater will be my reward." 14 St. Ignatius

9 ". . . pro meritorum tamen di- 13 i Cor. XV, 41 sq. : "Alia

rersitate alium alio perfectius." claritas solis, alia claritas lunae, et

(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 693). alia claritas stellarum. Stella enim

10 John XIV, 2: "In domo Pa- a Stella differt in claritate: sic et
tris met mansiones multae sunt." resurrectio mortuorum." — Cfr. Al.

11 i Cor. Ill, 8: " Unusquisque Schafer, Erklarung der beiden
autem propriam mercedem accipiet Brief e an die Korinther, pp. 228 sqq.,
secundum swim laborem." Minister 1903; J. MacRory, The

122 Cor. IX, 6: "Qui parce Epistles of St. Paul to the Conn-

seminat, parce et metet: et qui semi- thians, P. I, pp. 245 sq., Dublin

not in benedictionibus, de benedic- 1915.

tionibus et metet." i* Martyrium S. Polycarpi, 40.

42 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

of Antioch writes : " The greater the toil, the greater
the gain." 15 Tertullian says : " How is it that there are
many mansions in the Father's house, if not for the va
riety of merits ? How does star differ from star in glory,
if not for the diversity of rays ? " 16 St. Jerome argues
against Jovinian : " If there is no difference in merits, if
virgins do not differ from married women, if the easier
works of piety are equally meritorious with the constancy
of the martyrs, it is vain to strive for perfection," and
proceeds to show how absurd it is to suppose that a
death-bed repentance puts the life-long sinner on a level
with the Apostles.17

The objection that inequality of glory in Heaven would
provoke envy and jealousy among the Blessed, is re
futed by St. Augustine as follows : " There will be no
envy on account of unequal glory, because one love will
govern all." 18 According to St. Thomas the measure of
glory enjoyed by each is gauged by the strength of the
love he has for God : " That intellect which has more
of the light of glory will see God the more perfectly ; and
he will have a fuller participation of the light of glory
who has more of charity, because where there is greater
charity, there is a more ardent desire ; . . . hence he who
possesses the greater charity, will see God the more per
fectly." 19

15 A d Polycarp., I, 3: #TTOU studium, taediosus omnino erit vir-
irXetuv KOTTOS, Tro\i> KepSos. tutum labor, omnes a perfections re-

16 Scorpiace, 6: "Quomodo mul- trahentur. Quid perseverant vir-
tae mansiones apud Patrem, si non gines? Quid laborant viduae? Cur
pro varietate meritorumf Quomodo maritatae se continent? Peccemus
et stella a stella distabit in gloria, omnes, et post poenitentiam idem
nisi pro diversitate radiorumf " erinius quod Apostoli sunt."

17 Contra lovin., II, 34: "Si is Tract, in loa,, 67, 3: "Non
nulla meritorum diversitas, si nihil erit aliqua in-vidia imparis claritatis.
distet inter virgines et mulieres quoniam regnabit in omnibus unitas
coniugatas, si aequalis meriti sint caritatis."

leviora virtutum opera et martyrum 19 Summa Theol., xa, qu. 12, art.

constantia, vanum erit perfections 6 : " Intellectus plus participans de

HEAVEN 43

b) The inequality of heavenly glory has given
rise to the Scholastic doctrine of aureolae, i. e.
special marks of success attaching to those who
have won conspicuous victories over the three
arch-enemies of man, the world, the flesh, and
the devil.20

The aureola of the virgin marks a heroic victory over
the flesh;21 that of the martyr, over the world;22 that
of the doctor, over the devil, who is the father of lies.23

These marks must be something real, immanent in the
soul, and may be conceived as an internal joy over the
victory won. What some theologians say of the external
visibility of these crowns of glory, or their color, is pure
conjecture.

READINGS: — *Lessius, De Summo Bono et Aeterna Beatitudine
Hominis, Antwerp 1616 (ed. Hurter, 1869). — Suarez, De Fine
Ultimo. — * Bellarmine, De Sanctorum Beatitudine. — Schniitgen,
Die Visio Beatified, Wiirzburg 1867. — A Krawutzcky, De Visione
Beatifica Comment. Histor., Breslau 1868. — Kirschkamp, Gnade
und Glorie in ihrem inneren Zusammenhang, Wurzburg 1878. —
*Bautz, Der Himmel, spekulativ dargestellt, Mayence 1881. —
*Franzelin, De Deo Uno, thes. 14-19, Rome 1888. — F. Boudreaux,
S J., Die Seligkeit des Himmels, Kevelaer 1898. — Scheeben, Die
Mysterien des Christ entums, 3rd ed., pp. 583 sqq., Freiburg 1912.
— E. Meric, Les £lus se reconnaitront au del, Paris 1881. —
Blot, S.J., Das Wiedererkennen im Jenseits, loth ed., Mayence

lumine gloriae perfectius Deum vide- reola est aliquid aureae \beatitudini
bit. Plus autem participabit de lu- essentiali] superadditum, i. e. quod-
mine gloriae. qui plus habet de can- dam gaudium de operibus a se factis,
tatet quia ubi est maior caritas, ibi quae habent rationem victoriae ex-
est maius desiderium. . . . Unde qui cellentis."
plus habebit de caritate. perfectius 21 Apoc. XIV, 3.
Deum videbit." 22 Cfr. Matth. V, u sq.

20 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 23 Cfr. Dan. XII, 3.
Supplement., qu. 95, art. i : " Au-

44 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

1900. — G. Gietmann, S J., art. " Nimbus," in Vol. XI of the
Catholic Encyclopedia. — Jos. Hontheim, S.J., art. "Heaven,"
ibid., Vol. VII. — Delloue-Leahy, Solution of the Great Problem,
New York 1917, pp. 217 sqq.

CHAPTER IV

HELL

SECTION i

THE EXISTENCE OF HELL

i. DEFINITION. — Our English word "Hell"
comes from the Anglo-Saxon hel, which origin
ally signified "a hidden place." * According to
present-day usage Hell means the abode of evil
spirits and the place or state of punishment of the
wicked after death. The Hebrew term sheol is
sometimes used in the same sense, though its
proper meaning is "cave," "nether world," or
"abode of the departed." The Latin infernus
(Greek, <f&??) more definitely signifies the place
where the wicked are tormented. The Hebrew
name for this place is gehenna, which originally
meant "valley of the Hinnom." This valley was
near Jerusalem and once belonged to the sons of
Hinnom (Ennom). Later it became the scene of
cruel sacrifices to Moloch and finally served as
a garbage dump.2 The term gehenna in the sense

iSee the Oxford New English 2 Cfr. 4 Kings XXIII, 10; Jer.
Dictionary, Vol. V, s. v. VII, 31; XIX, 6.

46 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

of infernus was in common use among the Jews
at the time of our Lord.3

Besides these more or less technical terms, Holy Scrip
ture employs a number of metaphorical expressions to
describe the abode of the damned, e. g.f " exterior dark
ness," accompanied by " weeping and gnashing of
teeth; " 4 " everlasting fire; " 5 " the second death," 6 etc.
Though all these phrases, with the exception of the last,
may connote a place, the emphasis is upon the state of
eternal damnation and torment. Very truly, therefore,
has it been said that the damned carry Hell around with
them.

2. THE EXISTENCE OF HELL PROVED FROM
SACRED SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION. — The exist
ence of Hell was denied by the Jewish sect of the
Sadducees, by the followers of the Gnostic heretic
Valentinus, and, generally, by unbelievers of all
ages. The Catholic Church, on the contrary, has
repeatedly and solemnly defined that "the wicked
[will receive] eternal punishment together with
the devil." 7 "

a) Sacred Scripture inculcates this truth so
frequently and unmistakably that it has been
justly said that no other Catholic dogma has such
a solid Biblical basis. St. Jude designates Hell as

3 Cfr. Matth. V, 22, 29; Mark 1 Cone. Lot. IV, Cap. " Fir mi-
IX, 46; Luke XII, 5. ter": " Illi [soil, malt] cum diabolo

4 Tenebrae exteriores, <r/c<5roj poenam perpetuam et istl [scil. boni]
££wrepoi'. (Matth. VIII, 12). cum Christo gloriam sempiternam

5 Matth. XXV, 41; Mark IX, 42. [recipient]." (Denzlnger-Bannwart,
e V. supra, p. 5. n. 429).

HELL 47

"the punishment of eternal fire." 8 St. Paul calls
it "eternal punishment in destruction." 9 Our
Lord Himself describes it as an "unquenchable
fire," a place "where the worm dieth not and the
fire is not extinguished," 10 a "furnace of fire," n
etc. St. John in the Apocalypse refers to Hell as
"a pool burning with fire and brimstone." 12
Many other texts could be cited, but it is unneces
sary to multiply proofs in view of our Lord's own
declaration that the wicked will be cast into an
"everlasting fire, which was prepared for the devil
and his angels." 13

b) The Fathers faithfully echo this teaching
of Scripture. Thus St. Ignatius of Antioch
writes to the Ephesians : "Do not err, my breth
ren ; ... if a man by false teaching corrupt the
faith of God, for the sake of which Jesus Christ
was crucified, such a one shall go in his foulness
to the unquenchable fire,14 as also shall he who lis
tens to him."15 Not content with testifying to
the teaching of Scripture on the subject, the Fa
thers proved it from reason. Thus they argue
that God in His justice cannot possibly allow crim-

8 Jude 7: " ignis aeterni, poenam." lorum erit in stagno ardentl igne

8 2 Thess. I, 9: " Qui poenas da- et sulphurs: quod est mors secunda."

bunt in interitu aeternas a facie — For other expressions see No. i,

Domini. ..." supra.

10 Mark IX, 43: " Ubi vermia 13 Matth. XXV, 41: " Discedite
eorum non moritur, et ignis non a me maledicti in ignem aeternum,
extinguitur." qui paratus est diabolo et angelis

11 Matth. XIII, 42: " Et mittent suis."

eos in caminum ignis . . ." 1* e/s rd irvp rb &ffj3cffrov.

izApoc. XXI, 8: ". . . pars il- 15 Ad Eph.. XVI, 2.

48 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

inals to go unpunished. "I will briefly reply/'
says St. Justin Martyr, "that if the matter be not
thus, either there is no God, or if there is, He
does not concern Himself with men, virtue and
vice mean nothing, and they who transgress im
portant laws are unjustly punished by the lawgiv
ers." 16 St. Chrysostom writes : "All of us, —
Greeks and Jews, heretics and Christians, — ac
knowledge that God is just. Now many who
sinned have passed away without being punished,
while many others, who led virtuous lives, did not
die until they had suffered innumerable tribula
tions. If God is just, how will He reward the lat
ter and punish the former, unless there be a Hell
and a Resurrection ?" 1T

c) A cogent philosophical argument for the existence
of Hell can be drawn from the consensus of mankind that
there must be a place where criminals receive their just
punishment in the next world. This belief is so general,
so definite, and so clearly demanded by reason that it
must be true.

Society and the moral order could not exist without
belief in Hell, and it is probably on this account that
all nations have clung to this belief despite its terrors.
Those individuals who deny the existence of Hell are
mostly atheists or libertines, distinguished neither for
learning nor purity of life. Wherever conscience is
allowed to speak, it voices the firm conviction that God
will punish the wicked and reward the just in the world

16 Apol., II, n. 9. — Other Patristic testimonies infra.

17 Horn, in Ep. ad Phil, 6, n. 6. Sect. 3.

HELL 49

beyond. St. Chrysostom aptly observes : "If those who
argue against Hell would embrace virtue, they would soon
be convinced of its existence." 18

2. THE LOCATION OF HELL. — The Fathers and
Scholastics believed Hell to be somewhere un
der the earth or near its centre, which latter
view is immortalized in Dante's Inferno.19 This
ancient belief was based on such Biblical passages
as Numb. XVI, 31 sqq.: "Immediately as he
had made an end of speaking, the earth broke
asunder under their feet, and opening her mouth,
devoured them with their tents and all their sub
stance, and they went down alive into hell/' Ps.
LIV, 16: "Let death come upon them, and let
them go down alive into hell." Isaias V, 14:
"Therefore hath hell . . . opened her mouth,
and their strong ones . . . shall go down into it."
Our Lord Jesus Christ Himself "descended into
hell." 20

a) But these texts no more prove that Hell is beneath
or in the earth than the ancient conception of Heaven as
" above " proves that the abode of the Blessed is located
somewhere beyond the firmament. The ancients had a

18 Horn, in Ep. ad Rom., 31, n. 20 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Soteriology,
4. — The argument from reason in p. 91. — Other Patristic utterances
St. Thomas, Summa c. Gent., Ill, in Lessius, De Perfect. Moribusque
140; Summa Theol., ia zae, qu. 87, Divinis, XIII, 24.— The question re-
art, i. — Cfr. H. Liiken, Die Tra- garding the probable location of Hell
ditionen des Menschengeschlechtes, is treated at length by Bautz, Die
and ed., pp. 410 sqq., Minister 1869. Holle, im Anschluss an die Scho-

19 Cfr. Patuzzi, De Sede Inferni lastik, 2nd ed., pp. 28 sqq., Mayence
in Terra Quaerenda, Venice 1763. 1905-

50 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

geocentric conception of the universe, which found its sci
entific expression in the Ptolemaic system. To them the
earth was the centre of the universe, surrounded in great
circles, called deferents, by the revolving centers of smaller
circles, called epicycles, on whose circumferences the plan
ets were supposed to move. Beyond the last and highest
sphere was an imaginary region of light, the empyreum,
to which fire and other tenuous bodies were believed to
tend as to their natural goal. This conception of the
universe led the Scholastics to locate Heaven in the
empyreum and Hell in the centre of the earth, with
Purgatory and the Limbo somewhere in the outer strata
of our planet. Those who, like Cosmas Indicopleustes,21
conceived the earth as a rectangular plane encircled by
steep walls, placed Hell underneath this plane.

b) It is easy to ridicule these naive ideas from the
advanced standpoint of modern science, as Draper and
Flammarion have done. But no sane philosopher will
argue that Hell does not exist because " there is no place
for it in the heliocentric system." We readily admit
that modern astronomy has corrected many erroneous
notions and that the progress of geography and physics
has exercised a wholesome influence on Eschatology.
To-day " above " and " below " are recognized as purely
relative terms, and we know that the heavens con
stantly change their position towards us as the earth
revolves around its own axis and around the sun. Holy
Scripture and the Fathers speak the language of the
common people, and such phrases as take the geocentric
system for granted, must not be interpreted literally.
The unfortunate Galileo case is a warning to theolo-

21 Topographia Christiana, 1. II. ban, Patrology, pp. 555 sq., St.
(On this writer and his Christian Louis 1908).
Topography cfr. Bardenhewer-Sha-

HELL 51

gians. The Church has never defined that Hell is a
place, though the dogma of the Resurrection seems to
entail this conclusion. Still less has she defined where
Hell is. That is a question lying entirely outside
the sphere of dogma. St. Gregory the Great says:
"I dare not define anything on this subject, for some
believed Hell to be situated somewhere within the earth,
whereas others look for it under the earth." 22 In point
of fact we know nothing at all about the location of Hell,
and instead of prying into the unknowable, we should
heed the warning of St. Chrysostom : " Do not inquire
where Hell is, but how to escape it." 23

22 Dial., IV, 42: " De hac re hunc sub terra esse acstimant."

temcre definirc nihil audeo. N annul- (Migne, P. L., LXXVII, 400).

H namque in quadam terrarunt parte 23 Horn, in Ep. ad Rom., 31, n. 5

infernum esse putaverunt, alii vero (Migne, P. (?., LX, 674).

SECTION 2

NATURE OF THE PUNISHMENT

Though the Church has defined nothing with
regard to the nature of the punishment which
the wicked are compelled to suffer in Hell, theolo
gians usually describe it as partly privative and
partly positive.

Its most dreadful element is undoubtedly the
loss of the beatific vision. To this (poena danini)
are added certain positive torments (poena sen-
sus).

The twofold punishment of the wicked, ac
cording to St. Thomas, corresponds to the two
fold nature of sin, which is both a turning away
from God (aversio a Deo) and an inordinate
turning towards the creature (conversio ad cre-
aturam). "Punishment," he says, "is propor
tionate to sin. Now sin comprises two things.
First, there is the turning away from the immu
table good, which is infinite, and therefore, in
this respect, sin is infinite. Secondly, there is the
inordinate turning to mutable good. In this re
spect sin is finite, both because the mutable good
itself is finite, and because the movement of

53

HELL 53

turning towards it is finite, since the acts of a
creature cannot be infinite. Accordingly, in so
far as sin consists in turning away from God, its
corresponding punishment is the pain of loss,
which also is infinite, because it is the loss of the
infinite good, i. e. God. But in so far as sin turns
inordinately [to the mutable good], its corre
sponding punishment is the pain of sense, which
also is finite." 1

i. THE PAIN OF Loss (POENA DAMNI). —
Damnation consists essentially in a realization, on
the part of the creature, of the fact that through
its own fault it has lost the greatest of all goods
and missed the very purpose of its existence, and
thereby its natural destiny. This knowledge
causes a feeling of unhappiness akin to despera
tion, which is the exact counterpart of the beati
tude of Heaven. The poena damni is expressed
in the words, "Depart from me, ye cursed!"
whereas the poena sensus is indicated in the
phrase, "into eternal fire/' 2 There are other
Scriptural texts that confirm this doctrine. Luke

1 Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 87, turn etiatn quid ipsa conversio est

art. 4: "Poena proportionate pec- finita; non enim possunt esse actus

cato. In peccato autem duo sunt: creaturae infiniti. Ex parte igitur

quorum unum est aversio ab in- aversionis respondet peccato poena

commutabili bono, quod est infinitum, damni, quae etiam est infinita; est

unde ex hac parte peccatum est in- enim amissio infiniti boni, scilicet

finitum; aliud quod est in peccato Dei. Ex parte autem inordinatat

est inordinata conversio ad com- conversions respondet ei poena sen-

mutabile bonum; et ex hac parts tus, quae etiam est finita."

peccatum est finitum, turn quia ip- 2 V. infra, No. 2.
sum bonum commutabile est finitum,

54 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

XIV, 24 : "But I say unto you that none of those
men that were invited, shall taste of my supper." 3
In the parable of the Master of the house, Luke
XIII, 27 sq., the Lord says: "I know you not,
whence you are : depart from me, all ye workers of
iniquity. There shall be weeping and gnashing of
teeth, when you shall see Abraham and Isaac and
Jacob, and all the prophets, in the kingdom of
God, and you yourselves thrust out." 4

The Fathers unanimously confirm the teaching
of Scripture. St. John Chrysostom describes the
pain of loss, in contradistinction to the pain of
sense, as follows: "The fire of Hell is insup
portable — who does not know it? — and its tor
ments are awful. But if you were to heap a
thousand hell-fires one on top of the other, it
would be as nothing compared to the punishment
[that consists in] being excluded from the bea
tific glory of Heaven, hated by Christ, and com
pelled to hear Him say, 'I know thee not.5 " 5

It is difficult, nay impossible, to write a psychology of
the damned. This much, however, is certain : the repro
bates in Hell are beyond redemption, and sanctifying
grace in their souls is replaced by a fierce hatred of Al
mighty God.

3 Luke XIV, 24 : " Dico autent omnes operarii iniquitatis. Ibi erit
vobis, quod nemo virorum illorum, fletus et stridor dentium: quum vi-
qui vocati sunt, gustabit coenam deritis Abraham et Isaac et lacob
meam." et omnes prophetas in regno Dei,

4 Luke XIII, 27 sq.: " Nescio vos autem expelli foras."
vos, unde sitis: discedite a mt 5 Horn, in Matth., 23, n. 8.

HELL 55

Schell 6 has protested against the " rigorism " which as
serts that the will of the wicked after death is suddenly
set against God and that their previous half-hearted love
of, or indifference towards Him, becomes transformed
into " satanic malice." The germs of moral good which
a soul takes with it into the next world, he argues, cannot
be lost, since God destroys no good thing. This doubt
ful principle led Schell to conclusions closely akin
to those of Hirscher.7 His teaching was violently as
sailed by Father J. Stufler, S. J.8 Professor F. X. Kiefl
defended Schell and interpreted his words more mildly.
It is undeniable, however, because of the essential dis
tinction existing between the status viae and the status
termini, that when the damned enter Hell, where grace
ceases and conversion becomes impossible, they are smitten
with great confusion of spirit and a corresponding
sentiment of impenitence. Being permanently deprived
of grace makes them enemies of God. It is not nec
essary to conceive this state as a sort of confirmed
" Satanism. " No doubt there are degrees of malice and
impenitence in Hell. But all the damned hate God more
or less because He is no longer their friend. Herein
lies the dreadfulness of eternal punishment. The natural
will, being a gift of God, remains good ; but it no longer
wills that which is good. It wills the bad, or if it wills the
good, wills it with a wrong intention. St. Thomas ex
plains the reason as follows : " The damned are abso
lutely turned away from the final end of the rightly di
rected will. The will cannot be good except it be ordered
to that end, so that, even if [the damned] willed some
thing good, they would not will it in the right way, i. e. so

6 Dogmatik, Vol. II, Part II, pp. 8 Die Heiligkeit Gottes und der

745 sqq. ewige Tod, Innsbruck 1904.

1 V. suf>ra, p. 15.

56 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

that their will might be called good." 9 Though such an
exercise of the will is sinful, it entails no demerit, because
the damned are in the status termini.10 Hence the
damned by the sins which they commit in Hell do not
merit an increase of the poena damni or of the torments
which constitute the poena sensus. This is the com
mon teaching of Catholic theologians, based on the wis
dom and justice of God.11

2. THE PAIN OR PUNISHMENT OF SENSE
( POENA SENSUS). — "Pain of sense" in Catholic
theology means a pain which is caused by a sen
sible medium, regardless of whether it is felt by
the senses or not.12 The external medium
through which the positive punishments of Hell
are inflicted is called by Sacred Scripture fire
(ignis, ™p). Must this term be taken literally
or may it be interpreted in a metaphorical sense ?

" The worm that dieth not " 13 is undoubtedly a figure
of speech, signifying the pangs of conscience, and hence
there is no intrinsic reason why the word " fire " might not
signify mental anguish, as Origen, Ambrose Catha-
rinus,1* Mohler,15 and others have maintained. The

9 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 50, logische Zeitfragen, 2te Folge; pp.
qu. 2, art. i: " Et hoc idea, quia 83 sqq., Freiburg 1901; J. Lehner,
sunt perfecte aversi a fine ultimo rec- Der Willenszustand des Sunders
tae voluntatis. Nee aliqua voluntas nach dem Tode, Vienna 1906.
potest esse bona nisi per ordinem ad 12 Cfr. Suarez, De Angelis, VIII,
finem praedictum, unde etiam si all- 12.

quid bonum veUnt, non tamen bene 13 Mark IX, 43.

bonum volunt illud. ut ex hoc volun- 1* Opuscula, ed. Lugdun., 1542,

tas eorum bona did possit." pp. 145 sqq.

10 V. Ch. I, Thesis III, p. 13. 15 Neue Untersuchungen, sth ed.,

11 Cfr. Chr. Pesch, S.J., Theo- p. 318, Ratisbon 1890.

HELL 57

Church has never issued a dogmatic definition on the
subject. Hence we are not dealing with an article of faith
nor even with a sententia fidei proximo,. However, since
the literal interpretation is favored by the great majority
of Fathers and Scholastics, it may be regarded as " sen
tentia certa."

There must be some external medium or agent
— (whether solid, fluid or gaseous, or in some
state transcending the laws of nature) — by which
the wicked are tormented, and the nature of
which is absolutely unknown to us. In taking
this position we oppose the naive realism of those
who regard Hell as literally a gigantic "furnace"
or an active volcano.

a) In trying to ascertain the nature of the
infernal fire, the first thing that strikes us is that,
though it is physical and real, it cannot be material.

a) Neither in its nature nor in its properties, neither
in its beneficent nor in its malign effects, is the fire of
Hell identical with, or even similar to, the material fire
of nature.

Sacred Scripture speaks of Hell as a " furnace of fire,"
a " pool of fire and brimstone," an " external darkness in
which there is howling and gnashing of teeth," an
" eternal fire " prepared for the devil and his angels from
the beginning.10 Now the devil and his angels (the
demons), being pure spirits, cannot be affected by
material substances such as fire and brimstone, heat
and darkness, because they possess neither senses nor sen-

16 V. supra, Sect. i.

58 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

sitive faculties. The same is true of the souls of the
wicked during their disembodied state, i. e. before the
Resurrection of the flesh.

This fact was clearly perceived by the Fathers. Lac-
tantius says : " The nature of that everlasting fire is dif
ferent from this fire of ours, which we use for the nec
essary purposes of life, and which ceases to burn unless
it be sustained by the fuel of some material. But that
divine fire always lives by itself, and burns without nour
ishment ; nor has it any smoke mixed with it, but it is pure
and liquid and fluid, after the manner of water." 17 St.
Ephraem 18 and St. Basil 19 declare that the fire of Hell
causes darkness and incessantly torments its victims,
without however destroying them. St. Ambrose writes:
" Therefore it is neither a gnashing of the bodily teeth,
nor a perpetual bodily fire, nor a bodily worm." 20 St.
Augustine says that the fire of Hell, while it bears some
resemblance to our material fire, is not identical with
it.21 St. John of Damascus teaches : " The devil and
his angels and his man, i. e. Antichrist, as well as all
other impious and wicked men, will be thrust into
eternal fire, [which is] not a material fire like ours, but
of a quality known to God." 22

£) A few Catholic theologians (Henry of Ghent,
Toletus, Tanner, Lessius, and Fr. Schmid 23) conceive the

17 De Div. Inst., VII, 21. 61: " Non esse corporalia, sed si-

18 Serm. Exeget., Opera Syriace et milia corporalibus, quibus aniwiae
Latine, Vol. II, p. 354. corporibus exutae afficiantur."

19 In PsaL, 28, 7, n. 6. 22 Oux V\IKOI>, olov r6 Trap' if^lv.

20 In Lucam, VII, n. 204: d\\' olov &v etoefy 6 Geos- (De
"Ergo neque est corporalium stri- Fide Orthodoxa, IV, 27). — Several
dor aliquis dentium neque ignis alir Fathers explain the term " eter-
quis perpetuus flammarum cor- nal fire " metaphorically ; cf r. Pesch,
poralium neque vermis est corpora- Praelect. Dogmat,, Vol. IX, 2nd ed.,
Ks." pp. 322 sq.

21 De Genesi ad Literam, XII, 32, 23 Quaestiones Selectae, pp. 145

sqq., Paderborn 1891.

HELL 59

action of the infernal fire upon the demons and the souls
of the wicked as that of a% material upon an immaterial
substance.24 Opposed to this theory is the fact that pure
spirits as well as disembodied souls are utterly devoid of
sense perception. But could not God make them feel
sensual pain by a miracle? That depends on the
answer to another question, vis.: Is there an intrinsic
contradiction involved in the assertion that pure spirits
can be affected by a material substance? Neither phi
losophy nor Revelation gives a definite answer to this
question. The existing uncertainty has led other theo
logians to devise a more plausible theory. They regard
the effect of the fire of Hell as purely spiritual, holding
that the constant presence of fire, which is a material
element, occupies the intellect of the damned in a dis
agreeable manner and fills the will with sadness
and aversion,25 or the fact of their being locally and in
separably bound up with this lowly element 2<J hinders the
free activity of the spirit and thus causes internal anguish
(per modum detentionis). The souls of the lost before
the Resurrection, says St. Thomas, " shall suffer from
corporeal fire by a sort of constriction (alligatio) . For
spirits can be tied to bodies, either as their form, as the
soul is tied to the human body to give it life ; or without
being the body's form, as magicians by diabolic power
tie spirits to images.27 Much more by divine power may
spirits under damnation be tied to corporeal fire; and it
is an affliction to them to know that they are tied to the
meanest creatures for punishment." This opinion is

24 Cfr. Lessius, De Div. Perf., ullo corpore mediot "

XIII, 30: "Si ignis naturaliter per 25 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,

suum calorem potest affligere spiritum Supplement., qu. 70, art. 3.

hominis mediante corpore, cur idem 26 Cfr. 2 Pet. II, 4; Jude 6.

ignis ut instrumentum Dei non po* 27 See Rickaby's note on this pas-

terit affligere eundem spiritum sine sage in God and His Creatures, p.

413, London 1905.

60 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

shared by the majority of Thomists.28 Suarez goes
so far as to say 29 that the effect of hell-fire is purely
spiritual, disfiguring the demons and the disembodied
souls of the lost in a manner analogous to that in which
sanctifying grace beautifies the angels and saints. This
theory, though it correctly emphasizes the mysterious na
ture of the fire, reduces it to the level of an intangible
metaphor.

One thing has been made certain by the subtle debates
of the Schoolmen, namely, that the fire of Hell cannot be
identical with material fire, but must be something at the
same time physical and supra-physical, a punishment in
vented by an avenging God, of which we know nothing
except that it exists and torments the damned.

b) What we have so far said applies princi
pally to the demons, who are pure spirits ; but it
is applicable also to the souls of the wicked be
fore the Resurrection.

These souls, it is true, do not lose their sensitive facul
ties when they leave the body. But they become incapable
of sense perception for lack of adequate organs (brain
and nervous system). "Incorporeal subsistent spirits,"
says St. Thomas, " have no organs of sense nor the use
of sensory powers." 30 It is different after the Resur
rection, when the souls are reunited with their bodies.
" Whatever may be said of the fire which torments the
disembodied souls," adds the Angelic Doctor, " the fire
that torments the bodies of the damned after the Res-

28 Suwma Contra Gent., IV, 90; sensuum non habent neque potentiis
cfr. De Veritate, qu. 26, art. i. sensitivis utuntur." (Summa contra

29 De Angelis, VIII, 14. Cent., IV, 90).
so " Substantiae incorporeae organa

HELL 61

urrection must be regarded as corporeal, because a pain
is not adapted to the body unless it is a bodily pain." 31
Nevertheless, the theory we have set forth is not
free from difficulties. It implies two strange corollaries,
viz.: (i) that the pains of sense which the souls of the
lost suffer in Hell differ before and after the Resur
rection; and (2) that the souls of wicked men through
out eternity suffer more intensely than the demons, for
whom the everlasting fire was originally prepared. For
if that fire be qualitatively the same for the demons and
the souls of wicked men, it must cause the same kind of
pain to both. True, the body, too, is affected; but this
bodily pain need not be conceived as a real burning; it
may be something entirely sui generis. We can obtain no
certain knowledge in the matter, though the possibility of
a real burning is undeniable. However, if we consider
that the assumption of a material fire, or a fire analogous
to the material, does not sufficiently account for either
the quantitative inequality of the torments inflicted or their
qualitative adaptability to the different kinds of sins to
be punished, we shall be confirmed in the conviction that
the fire of Hell in no wise resembles the material fire of
nature.82

81 " Quidquid dicatur de igne, qui human speech affords to tell us

animas separates cruciat, de igne what that terrible thing is. ' Ever-

tamcn, quo cruciabuntur corpora lasting fire ' is not a figurative ex-

damnatorum post rcsurrectionem, pression; it occurs in a judicial sen-

oportet dicere, quod sit corporeus, tence. Judges in passing sentence

quia corpori non potest convenienter do not use figurative language; not

adaptari poena, nisi sit corporea." in any figurative or metaphorical

(Summa TheoL, Supplement., qu. 79, sense shall you be ' hung by the neck

art. 5). till you are dead.' At the same

32 Fr. Joseph Rickaby, S. J., says time we have no exact and certain
in a recent brochure {Everlasting knowledge of the precise nature of
Punishment, pp. 7-11, London 1916): the fire of hell. Is it exactly like
"The fire of hell is real fire: the fire of earth? But what exactly
that is to say, the word fire is the is the fire of earth? What is corn-
most proper and exact word which bustion? Not till the end of the

62

THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

But if this be true, why does Sacred Scripture call the
mysterious medium of eternal punishment " fire " ? Why
not " water," or " snow," or " ether " ? The answer is

eighteenth century was man able to
reply, ' combustion is rapid combina
tion with oxygen.' Our ancestors
did not scientifically know what fire
was. They thought it was a ' sub
stance,' an ' element,' the lightest
and in natural position the highest
of the four elements, fire, air, water,
and earth, out of which all bodies
were composed. So then the fire of
hell, if it really was fire, they
thought must be a substance too.
So it well may be, but we must
speak cautiously. Modern science
presents us with heat, fire, light, and
electricity, and tells us that they
are all so many, not substances or
elements, but modes of motion affect
ing substance, whatever substance
may be. They are most abundant
things in nature: the fixed stars
are all on fire; electricity is sus
pected of being a primary constituent
of matter. We know much more
about these things than our an
cestors did: still we are in great
perplexity over them, indeed our
perplexities grow with our knowl
edge. Such is our ignorance of the
fire of this world, matter though it
be of our daily experience. Of a
fire such as that in which angels and
disembodied souls burn, happily we
have no experience. And beyond
teaching us that there is such a fire,
real fire, Christian revelation does
not go. It would be therefore ex
tremely rash, beyond the existence
(an sit) of such a fire, to pretend to
lay down with certainty its nature,
qualities, composition, and mode of
action (quid sit). The Church does
not do so. Her theologians echo St.
Augustine's words : ' As to which
fire, of what sort, and in what part

of the world or universe it is to be,
I am of opinion that no man knows,
unless haply some one to whom the
Spirit of God has shown it.' (Qui
ignis cujusmodi et in qua mundi vel
rerum parte futurus sit hominem
scire arbitror neminem, nisi forte cui
Spiritus divinus revelavit. — De Ci-
vitate Dei, xx. 16). There is, how
ever, a general consent of the faith
ful to regard it as a ' material ' fire,
and though this be not absolutely of
faith, still it cannot be denied with
out incurring the theological note
of ' rashness.' In accordance with
this general consent I have described
it as 'a material environment.' A
further speculation: is this material
environment itself on fire, or is it
such that the soul chafing and strug
gling against that constraint — ' the
great net of slavery,' ^ya SouXeias
ydyya^JLOv, to borrow a phrase of
^schylus — and, as St. Teresa says,
' continually tearing herself in
pieces ' — thereby sets herself on
fire? The question is beyond our
knowledge to answer. We are ac
customed to pictures of flames, with
souls in bodily shapes writhing in
them, and in such sensible repres
entations we must fain acquiesce
as being the best way to bring home
to imagination the reality of hell-
fire. God knows His own justice,
which in hell at any rate works
so as by fire,

" Over and above this material en
vironment I have been myself led
to argue the probability of the
spiritual substance of the soul, or
evil angel, itself coming truly to
burn under two opposing constraints,
the natural constraint, or effort, of
the spirit, seeking to go out to God,

HELL

easy to guess. The most intense pain known to man is
caused by fire. We can no more form an adequate
conception of the nature of eternal punishment and its
medium than of the beatitude of Heaven,33 and hence
the sacred writer could hardly have chosen a more ap
propriate phrase than " Depart from me, ye cursed,
into everlasting fire," 3d even in a context where meta
phorical expressions are otherwise avoided. If Christ
had called the infernal fire by its true name, we should
not have understood His meaning as well as we do now.

in whom alone, as it finds out too
late, its essential happiness lies, and
to the contrary, the constraining
hand of God, driving that spirit
back upon itself. (By ' the con
straining hand of God ' I do not
mean the ' material environment.' I
mean simply God's will to carry out
the sentence, ' Depart from me ').
Under analogous constraint, any
material substance, as all physicists
now know, would grow hot and
glow intensely. The laws of mat
ter may well have their analogue in
the spirit world. If this be so, the
mere depart from me must involve
everlasting fire. If this be so again,
the wicked spirit has made its own
hell, having first rejected the God
who now rejects it. Also, if this
be so, it becomes transparently clear
that as Heaven means God, so hell
means no God; and no God is just
what the obstinate impenitent sin
ner has chosen to have in this life,
and consequently in the next. This,
however, is a speculation. It makes
the fire of hell very real and very
terrible. For what is terrible in a
fire is not the medium in which
you are placed, but how you your
self burn.

" There are two perfectly distinct
fires of hell, arising from quite dis

tinct causes. There is first what I
have called ' a material environ
ment,' ' some external objective en
vironment,' producing in the soul
plunged into it a pain which to us,
with our human experiences, is most
properly declared by calling it the
pain of fire. Of the nature of this
material environment I have no idea,
no theory, any more than St. Au
gustine had. I accept the fact of
it simply because I wish to keep
my rank in the common herd of
Christian believers. Secondly, there
is the loss of God; and about that,
what I have had to say comes to
this, that considering the relation in
which the soul stands to its Last
End, the mere felt loss of God,
apart from all other agency, may,
on an analogy drawn from the physi
cal to the spiritual, be enough to set
the substance of the soul veritably
on fire. The * mighty constraining
force,1 which I have invoked for
this theory, is something quite over
and above the ' material environ
ment.' It is God's refusal of the
soul, driving it away from Him, a
refusal called a force only by anal
ogy with things physical."

83 i Cor. II, 9.

S4Matth. XXV, 41.

64 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

For all these reasons we deem it advisable to confess our
ignorance in a matter that plainly exceeds human under
standing, rather than engage in speculations which might
easily lead us into error. Let us live so that we need not
fear the mysterious fire of Hell.35

3. ACCIDENTAL PAINS OF THE DAMNED. — Be
sides the pain of loss and the pain of sense, which
together constitute the essence of Hell, the
damned suffer various accidental punishments.
There is first and above all the remorse of
conscience, which the Bible compares to a worm
that will not die.30 This and other accidental
pains are all the more terrible as the damned
never experience the slightest alleviation of their
suffering and are compelled to live forever in
the company of demons and witness their hid
eous outbursts of rage and hatred. The reunion
of soul and body after the Resurrection will fur
ther increase the misery of the lost souls in Hell.

35 Cfr. Knabenbauer, Comment, in Christentums, 3rd ed., pp. 607 sqq.,
Matth., Vol. II, pp. 384 sq., Paris Freiburg 1912.
1894; Scheeben, Die Mysterien des 36 Mark IX, 43,

SECTION 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PAINS OF HELL

The pains of Hell have two distinguishing
characteristics: (i) they are eternal and (2) they
differ in degree according to guilt.

i. THE PAINS OF HELL ARE ETERNAL. — In
consequence of the erroneous teaching of Origen,
the Church early in her history defined the
eternity of Hell as an article of faith. She did
this at the Council of Constantinople, in 543.
The definition given by this Council was approved
by the Fifth Ecumenical Council of 553-1 The
Athanasian Creed, which was compiled about the
same time, says: 'They that have done good
shall go into everlasting bliss, and they that have
done evil, into everlasting fire." 2 This truth was
repeated in similar terms by the Fourth Council
of the Lateran.3 The Protestant Reformers did
not attack the dogma of eternal punishment, and
hence the Tridentine Synod contented itself with
declaring: "If any one saith that in every good

1 Cfr. Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, nem aeternum." (Denzinger-Bann-
Vol. II, § 257. wart, n. 40).

2 " Qui bona egenint, ibunt in in- 3 V. supra, p. 46.
tarn aeternam, qui vero mala, in ig-

65

66 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

work the just man sins, . . . and consequently
deserves eternal punishments, ... let him be
anathema." 4

a) The dogma of eternal punishment is clearly
contained in Sacred Scripture. The prophet
Daniel proclaims : "Many of those that sleep in
the dust of the earth, shall awake : some unto life
everlasting, and others unto reproach, to see it
always." 5 The New Testament speaks repeat
edly of an eternal and inextinguishable fire.6 St.
John says in the Apocalypse: "And the beast
and the false prophet shall be tormented day and
night for ever and ever." 7

Though saeculum (a'uav) is sometimes used indefinitely
to denote a period of long duration,8 its meaning in this
passage obviously is eternity. The phrase in saecula sae-
culorum always has this meaning in the New Testa
ment, whether referring to the glory of God,9 the king
dom of Christ, 10 or the joys of Heaven.11 St. Augustine
has pointed out that there is no stronger argument for the
eternity of Hell than the fact that Sacred Scripture com
pares it in respect of duration to Heaven.12 This rea-

* Sess. VI, can. 25: "Si quis 8 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God: His

dixerit, iustum in quolibet opere bono Knowability, Essence, and Attributes,

peccare . . . atque ideo poenas aeter- pp. 306 sqq.

nas mererij anathema sit." 9 i Tim. I, 17; 2 Tim. IV, 18;

6 Dan. XII, 2: " Et multi de his, Gal. I, 5; Apoc. XV, 7.

qui dormiunt in terrae pulvere, evi- 10 Apoc. I, 18; XI, 15.

gilabunt: alii in vitam aeternam, et n Apoc. XXII, 5.

alii in opprobrium ut videant sent- 12 De Civitate Dei, XXI, 23: " Si

Per." utrumque aeternitm, profecto out

6 V. supra, Sect. i. utrumque cum fine diuturnum aut

7 Apoc. XX, 10: ". . . et bestia utrumque sine fine perpetuum debet
et pseudopropheta cruciabuntur die intellegi; par pari enim relata sunt."
•c node in saecitlc saeculorum."

HELL 67

soiling is confirmed by the Biblical teaching that the fate
of every man is irrevocably sealed at death.13 That there
is no hope of salvation for the wicked in Hell may be con
cluded from our Saviour's dictum, " It were better for
him if that man had never been born." 14

b) The Fathers echo the teaching of Scrip
ture. St. Polycarp tells his executioners : "You
threaten me with fire, which burns but for an
hour15 and then is extinguished; for you know
not the eternal fire of punishment reserved for the
wicked." 16 Minucius Felix says : "There is
neither measure nor termination to these tor
ments. There the intelligent fire (™p ew^pwow)
burns the limbs and restores them, feeds on them
and nourishes them. ... So that penal fire is not
fed by the waste of those who burn, but is nour
ished by the unexhausted eating away of their
bodies." 17

Origen held that all free creatures, demons as well as
lost souls, will ultimately share in the grace of salvation
(apocatastasis). This heretical teaching to some extent
influenced even such enlightened writers as Didymus the

13 V. supra, Sect, i, No. 2, Thes. carpit et nutrit. . . . Ita poenale il-
3. lud incendium non damnis ardent'turn

14 Matth. XXVI, 24: ". . . bo- pascitur, sed inexesa corporum la-
num erat e\, si natus non fuisset ceratione nutritur." Some editors
homo ille." have changed sapiens to rapiens, but

IB rrpos tipav- there is no need of this, as irvp

16 alwinov KoXdcrews irvp. (Mar- (ru^povovv is an expression of Clem-
tyr. Polyc., XI, 2; Funk, Patres ens Alexandrinus. (See R. E. Wal-
Apost., I, 295). lis, The Writings of Cyprian, Vol.

17 Octavius, 35: " Nee tormentis II, p. 509, n. i, Edinburgh 1869).
nut modus ullus out terminus. Illic For additional Patristic testimonies
sapiens ignis membra urit et reficit, see Petavius, De Angelis, III, 8, 4.

68 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

Blind, Evagrius of Pontus, and St. Gregory of Nyssa.18
It is not true, however, as some writers assert, that St.
Gregory of Nazianzus and St. Jerome denied the dogma
of eternal punishment.19

c) The proposition, "Ex inferno nulla redemp-
tio" can be demonstrated also by theological rea
soning.

If it were possible to rescue a lost soul from
Hell, this could only be in one of four ways:
by conversion, by an apocatastasis in the sense
of Origen, by complete annihilation, or through
the intercession of the living.

The first and second of these methods have been ex
cluded by positive arguments, which incidentally also
prove the impossibility of the fourth. St. Augustine
expressly says that the damned do not receive the slightest
alleviation of their sufferings through the intercession of
the living.20 Some Fathers and theologians, particu
larly St. Chrysostom21 and the poet Prudentius/2 held
that now and then, on stated days, as in the night before
Easter, God grants the damned a certain respite through
the prayers of the faithful. Petavius 23 judges this hy
pothesis mildly, whereas St. Thomas rejects it as vain,
presumptuous, and without authority.24 The singing of

18 Cfr. Kleinheidt, Gregorii Nyss. 20 De Civitate Dei, XXI, 24. Else-
Doctrina de Angelis, pp. 48 sqq., where, however (e. g. Enchir,, no)
Freiburg 1860; Hilt, Des hi. Gregor he seems to take a different view.

v on Nyssa Lehre vom Menschen, 21 Horn, in Ep. ad Phil., 2, n. 3.
Cologne 1890. 22 Hymn., V, 125 sqq., in Migne,

19 Cfr. Pesch, Praelect. Dogmat., P. L., LIX, 827.

Vol. IX, 2nd ed., pp. 309 sqq. — On 23 De Angelis, III, 8.

the eternity of Hell see Bautz, Die 24 Summa Theol., Supplement., qu.

Holle, 2nd ed., pp. 56 sqq., Mayence 71, art. 5: " Est praedicta opinio

1905. praesumpttiosa, utpote dictis sancto*

HELL 69

a certain hymn by St. Prudentius at the lighting of the
Paschal candle is not equivalent to an ecclesiastical ap
proval of the author's belief.25

The only other means by which a reprobate could
escape eternal punishment is complete annihilation. The
Socinians thus interpret " the second death " of the Apo
calypse. But this interpretation is contrary to the teach
ing of St. John. Cfr. Apoc. XIV, II : " The smoke of
their torments shall ascend up for ever and ever." 28
Apoc. XX, 14 : " And hell and death were cast into the
pool of fire ; this is the second death." 27 St. Paul, too,
plainly avers that the damned are punished forever.
" The wicked," he says, " will pay the penalty of everlast
ing ruin, from before the face of the Lord and the glory
of his might." 28 Tradition is equally positive. St. Cyp
rian declares that the fire of Hell is everlasting and no
respite is granted to the damned.29 St. Gregory, in a char
acteristic passage of his Expositio in Librum Job, gener
ally known by the title of Moralia, calls Hell " mors sine
viorte, finis sine fine, defectus sine defectu, quia et mors
vivit et finis semper incipit et de fie ere defectus nescit." 30

d) Philosophy cannot furnish conclusive evi
dence for the eternity of Hell, but it can show
that this truth is not repugnant to reason and

rum contraria et vana, nulla aucto- 28 2 Thess. I, 9: " Qu'% poenas

ritate fulta." dabunt in interitu aeternas (Si/CTjv

25 Cfr. H. Hurter, S.J., Compen- riffovffiv o\eQpov aluviov) a facie
dium Theologiae Dogmat., Vol. Ill, Domini et a gloria virtutis eius."
n. 808. 29 Ad Demetr,, 24: " Cremabit

26 Apoc. XIV, ii : Kai 6 Kairvbs addictos ardens semper gehenna et
TOV f3affavifffj.ov aVTUv els atwvas vivacibus flammis vorax poena. Nee
a.l(j)vi>)v dvaflaivei- erit, unde hdbere tormenta vel re-

27 Apoc. XX, 14: /cat 6 Odvaros quiem possint aliquando vel finem."
Kal adrjs e^X'fjd'rjffav els ri]v \tfJLvrjv 30 Moralia, IX, 66.

TOV irvpos- OVTOS 6 6a.va.Tos 6
Sevrepds ecTiv(Cfr. Apoc. XXI, 8.)

70 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

that the objections raised against it prove nothing.

a) When the wicked soul enters into the status termini,
it realizes that it is irrevocably lost. God, who alone
could save it, refuses to do so. " He who falls into
mortal sin by his own free will," says St. Thomas, " puts
himself into a state from which he cannot be rescued
except with the help of God, just as one who casts him
self into an abyss from which he could not escape un
aided, might say that it was his will to stay there for
ever, no matter what else he may have thought." 31 The
final decision being irrevocable, the will is confirmed in
malice and can no longer feel contrition.32

Moreover, punishment must be coextensive with guilt.
The guilt of mortal sin consists in the deprivation of grace,
which loss, for those who have entered upon the status
termini, is irretrievable, and consequently the reatus
poenae, too, must be eternal. " Therefore/' says St.
Thomas, "whatever sins turn man away from God, so
as to destroy charity, considered in themselves, incur
a debt of eternal punishment." 33

/?) It has been objected that there is no proportion be
tween a sinful act or thought, which lasts but one brief
moment, and eternal punishment. The comparison is
not correctly drawn. Though the sinful act (peccatum

31 Summa Theol., Supplement., qu. 32 Cfr. Op. cit., qu. 98, art. i sqq.

99, art. i : " Qui in peccatum mor- 33 Summa Theol., la aae, qu. 87,

tale labitur propria voluntate, se art. 3 : " Et ideo quaecunque pec-

ponit in statu, a quo erui non pot- cata avertunt a Deo caritatem au-

est nisi divinitus adiutus; sicut si ferentia, quantum est de se, indu-

aliquis se in foveam proiiceret, unde cunt reatum aeternae poenae." —

exire non posset, nisi adiutus, posset Other arguments apud Sachs, Die

did quod in aeternum ibi manere ewige Dauer der Hollenstrafen,

voluerit, quantumcunque aliter co- Paderborn 1900.
gitaret."

HELI: 71

actuate) be brief and transient, the ensuing sinful habitus
or state endures. St. Thomas explains this with his
wonted lucidity as follows : " The fact that adultery or
murder is committed in a moment, does not call for a
momentary punishment; in fact, these crimes are some
times punished by imprisonment or banishment for life,
sometimes even by death; . . . this punishment, in its
own way, represents the eternity of punishment inflicted
by God." 34

The so-called misericordes, whom St. Augustine com-
batted,35 appealed to the mercy of God as an argu
ment against eternal punishment. But God is not only
merciful, He is also infinitely just and holy, and His
justice and holiness compel Him to hate and punish sin
in proportion to its guilt. The divine mercy is not a
weakly sentimentality, but benevolent goodness tempered
by strict justice. If there were any chance of conversion
in the other world, or any hope that Hell might end,
even after millions of years, how few would shrink from
sin ! 36 The thought of eternal punishment alone deters
the average man from crime.

St. Gregory of Nyssa's friendly attitude towards Ori-
gen's theory of a universal apocatastasis is explicable on
the assumption that he regarded the reform of the evil
doer as the sole object of punishment. This view is in
correct. Punishment is inflicted primarily to satisfy di
vine justice and to vindicate and restore the disturbed
moral order (poena vindicativa) ,37 Not even worldly

34 Summa TheoL, la sae, qu. 87, tatetn poenae divinitus inflictae."

art. 3, ad i: " Non enim quia 85 De Civitate Dei, XXI, 18, i.

adulterium vel homicidium in mo- 36 Cfr. St. Jerome, In loa., 3, 6

mento committitur, propter hoc mo- (Migne, P. L., XXV, 1142).

mentanea poena punitur. sed quan- 37 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God: His

doque quidem perpetuo careers vel Knowability, Essence, and Attributes,

exilio, quandoque etiam morte, . . . pp. 460 sqq.
et sic repraesentat suo modo aeterni-

72 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

justice can get along without vindictive punishments,
though Lombroso and Liszt have tried to abolish them by
declaring all crimes to be the result of bodily disease or
mental disorder. " Even the punishment that is inflicted
according to human laws," says St. Thomas, " is not al
ways intended as a medicine for the one who is punished,
but sometimes only for others. Thus when a thief is
hanged, this is not done for his own amendment, but for
the sake of others, that at least they may be deterred
from crime through fear of punishment." 38

Another objection raised against the dogma of eternal
punishment is based upon the desire for happiness which
the Creator has implanted in every human heart. But
God is not obliged to gratify this desire in all men. He
has conditioned eternal happiness upon a good life. If
the innate desire for happiness remains unsatisfied in
some, it is their fault, not God's.

It is true that the happiness of rational creatures is the
secondary purpose of creation ; but, as we have seen in a
previous treatise,39 this purpose is subordinate to the glory
of God (gloria Dei), which is attained by the manifesta
tion of His justice no less than His mercy.

2. THE PAINS OF HELL DIFFER IN DEGREE
ACCORDING TO GUILT. — Though one single mor
tal sin renders the sinner as deserving of Hell as a
thousand crimes, justice demands that sins be pun
ished in proportion to their grievousness. Ac-

38 Summa Theol., la zae, qu. 87, detur, sed propter alias, ut saltern

art. 3, ad 2: " Poena, guae etiam metu poenae peccare desistant."

secundum leges humanas infligitur, 39 Pohle-Preuss, God the Author

non semper est medicinalis ei, qui of Nature and the Supernatural, pp.

funitur, sed solum aliis; sicut quum 80 sqq.
latro suspenditur, non ut ipse emen-

HELL 73

cordingly, to the degrees of reward and happiness
enjoyed by the Blessed in Heaven there corre
spond analogous degrees of punishment and mis
ery in Hell. This is the express teaching of the
Church.40

a) Our Divine Saviour draws a clear-cut dis
tinction between the judgment pronounced on
Tyre and Sidon and the penalty inflicted on the
unbelieving inhabitants of Corozain and Beth-
saida. The inspired seer of the Apocalypse says
of the corrupt city of Babylon : "Render to her
even as herself hath rendered, and give her dou
ble according to her works ; ... as much as she
hath glorified herself and wantoned in luxury,
so much give her of torment and mourning." 41
Cf r. Wisd. VI, 7 sqq. : ". . . the mighty shall be
mightily tormented, ... a greater punishment is
ready for the more mighty." 42

b) The Fathers seem to have held that the
poena damni, being a mere privation, is inflicted
equally on all, but that the poenae sensus differ
in degree. Thus St. Gregory the Great says:
"As there are many mansions in the house of the
Father, according to the different degrees of vir
tue, so the disparity of guilt subjects the damned

40 " Poenis tamen disparibus." in deliciis fuit, tantum date illi tor-
(.Cone. Florent., A. D. 1439). mentum et luctum."

41 Apoc. XVIII, 6 sq.: " Reddite 42 " Potentes autem potenter tor-
illi sicut et ipsa reddidit vobis: et menta patientur, . . . fortioribus,
duplicate ei duplicia secundum opera autem fortior instat cruciatio."
eius; . . . quantum glorificavit te et

74 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

in different degrees to the fire of Hell/' 43 Dante
exemplifies this belief in the concentric circles of
his Inferno. Of course only a mysterious and
essentially supernatural fire can produce such
radically different effects.

READINGS : — Patuzzi, De Futuro Impiorum Statu, Venice 1749.
— Carle, Du Dogme Catholique sur I'Enfer, Paris 1842. — J.
Bautz, Die Holle, 2nd ed., Mayence 1905. — L. de Segur, L'Enfer,
39th ed., Paris 1905 (German tr., Die Holle f 3rd ed., Mayence
1889.) — Fr. Schmid, Quaestiones Selectae ex Theologia Dog-
matica, pp. 145 sqq., Paderborn 1891. — Tournelize, Opinions du
Jour sur les Peines d'Outre-tombe: Feu Metaphorique, Univer-
salisme, Conditionalisme, Mitigation, Paris 1899. — Passaglia, De
Aeternitate Poenarum deque Igne Inferno, Rome 1854. — J. Sachs,
Die ewige Daner der Hollenstrafen, Paderborn 1900. — C. Gutber-
let, "Die Poena Sensus," in the Mayence Katholik, 1901, II, 305
sqq. — F. X. Kiefl, Die Ewigkeit der Holle und ihre speculative
Begriindung, Paderborn 1905. — J. Hontheim, S.J., art. " Hell," in
the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 207-211.— Card. Billot,
De Novissimis, Rome 1902. — Hewitt, " I gnus Aeternus," in the
Catholic World, LXVII (1893), pp. 426 sqq.— V. Morton,
Thoughts on Hell; A Study in Eschatology, London 1899. — Jos.
Rickaby, S.J., Everlasting Punishment, London 1916. — Dublin
Review, Jan. 1881, Vol. V, pp. 130 sqq.— Charles R. Roche, S.J.,
"Eternal Punishment," in the Irish Theological Quarterly, Vol.
V (1910), No. 17, pp. 64-79.— Delloue-Leahy, Solution of the
Great Problem, New York 1917, pp. 228 sqq. — J. G. Raupert,
Hell and its Problems, Buffalo, N. Y. 1917.

43 Moral., IV, 47: " Si cut in diverso sitpplicio gehennae ignibus
domo Patris mansiones multae sunt subiicit disparltas criminis."
pro diversitate virtutis, sic damnatos

CHAPTER V

PURGATORY

SECTION i

THE EXISTENCE OF PURGATORY

I. DEFINITION. — Purgatory (purgatorium) sig
nifies a process of cleansing.

a) Whether Purgatory is a place or a state is a contro
verted question. The poor souls are in a state of transi
tion, but it is not necessary to hold that they are confined
in any particular place. St. Thomas intimates that Pur
gatory is somehow " connected with Hell." 1 We might
with equal probability argue that it is connected with
Heaven, because the poor souls are children of God, who
are sure to be admitted sooner or later to the abode of
the Blessed.2

b) Not all who depart this life in the state of
grace are fit to enter at once into the beatific
vision of God. Some are burdened with venial
transgressions. Others have not yet fully ex-

1 Summa Theol., Appendix, qu. i, ise, De Purgatorio, II, 6. That
art. 2. Purgatory is situated in the bowels

2 The various views regarding the of the earth is as undemonstrable as
location of Purgatory are set forth the location of Heaven and Hell.

by Cardinal Bellarmine in his treat-

75

76 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

plated the temporal punishments due to their sins.3
It Would be repugnant to divine justice to admit
such souls to Heaven, into which, according to
Holy Writ, nothing defiled shall enter.4 Nor can
God in his justice consign these souls to Hell.
Hence there must be a middle state in which they
are cleansed of venial sins, or, if they have not yet
fully paid the temporal punishments due to their
forgiven sins, must expiate the remainder of
them. St. Thomas says : 'There may be some
impediment on the part of the good in the way of
their souls receiving their final reward in the vis
ion of God immediately upon their departure from
the body. To that vision, transcending as it does
all natural created capacity, the creature cannot
be raised before it is entirely purified : hence it is
said that nothing defiled can enter into it (Wisd.
VII, 25), and that the polluted shall not pass
through it (Is. XXXV, 8). Now the pollution
of the soul is by sin, which is an inordinate union
with lower things ; from which pollution it is puri
fied in this life by Penance and other Sacraments.
Now it happens sometimes that this process of
purification is not entirely accomplished in this
life, and the offender remains still a debtor with a
debt of punishment upon him, owing to some neg-

8 Cfr. Concil. Trident., Sess. IV, in earn \_scil. civitatem] allquod coin-
can. 30; Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- quinatum, aut dbominationem fa-
merits, Vol. Ill, p. 219. dens, et mendacium . . ."

4 Apoc. XXI, 27: " Non intrabit

PURGATORY 77

ligence or distraction, or to death overtaking him
before his debt is paid. Not for this does he de
serve to be entirely shut out from reward : because
all this may happen without mortal sin, and it is
only mortal sin that occasions the loss of charity,
to which the reward of life everlasting is due.
Such persons, then, must be cleansed in the next
life, before entering upon their eternal reward.
This cleansing is done by penal inflictions, as even
in this life it might have been completed by penal
works of satisfaction: otherwise the negligent
would be better off than the careful, if the penalty
that men do not pay here for their sins is not to be
undergone by them in the life to come. The
souls, then, of the good, who have upon them in
this world something that needs cleansing, are
kept back from their reward, while they endure
cleansing purgatorial pains. And this is the rea
son why we posit a purgatory or place of cleans
ing." 5

Purgatory may therefore be defined as a state
of temporary punishment for those who, depart
ing this life in the grace of God, are not entirely
free from venial sins or have not yet fully paid the
satisfaction due to their transgressions.

2. PROOF FROM REVELATION. — The existence
of Purgatory was denied by Aerius in the fourth

5 Summa c. Gent., IV, 91. (Rickaby, Of God and His
Creatures, p. 415.)

78 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

century, by the Albigenses, Waldenses, and Hus
sites in the Middle Ages, and more recently by
Luther and Calvin.6 Calvin termed the Catholic
dogma " a pernicious invention of Satan, which
renders the cross of Christ useless." 7 This teach
ing of the Reformers is quite consistent with their
false idea of justification. If a man is justified
by faith alone, and all his sins are "covered up"
by the grace of Christ, there can be nothing left
for him to expiate after death.

The Church defined the existence of Purgatory
in the Decree of Union adopted at Florence
(1439), saying that "the souls are cleansed by
purgatorial pains after death, and in order that
they may be rescued from these pains, they are
benefitted by the suffrages of the living faithful,
viz.: the sacrifice of the Mass, prayers, alms, and
other works of piety." 8 The Council of Trent
repeated this definition in substance : ". . . The
Catholic Church, instructed by the Holy Ghost,
has, from the sacred writings and the ancient tra
dition of the Fathers, taught in sacred councils,
and very recently in this ecumenical Synod,9 that
there is a Purgatory, and that the souls detained

6 Cfr. Bellarmine, De Purgatorio, iusmodi releventur, prodesse eis

I, 2. fide Hum vivorum suffragia, missarum

1 " Exitiale satanae commentum, scil. sacrificia, orationes et elemosy-

quod Christi crucem evacuat." nas et alia pietatis officia." (Denz-

(Inst., Ill, 5, § 6). inger-Bannwart, n. 693).

S"Animas poenis purgatoriis post 9 Sess. VI, can. 30; Sess. XXII,

mortem purgari et, ut a poenis hu* cap. 2 and 3.

PURGATORY 79

in it are helped by the suffrages of the faith
ful." 10 Pope Leo X solemnly condemned Lu
ther's assertion that "Purgatory cannot be proved
from the canonical Scriptures." n

a) The scriptural locus classicus for our
dogma is 2 Mach. XII, 43 sqq. When Judas had
put Gorgias to flight, and came with his company
to take away the bodies of the slain, he found that
some of them had under their coats treasures
which they had robbed from the idols of Jamnia.
In committing this robbery the soldiers had
probably been moved by avarice rather than
idolatrous intent. Yet their conduct was plainly
a transgression of the Mosaic law, which said:
"Their graven things thou shalt burn with fire;
thou shalt not covet the silver and gold of which
they are made, neither shalt thou make to thee any
thing thereof, lest thou offend, because it is an
abomination to the Lord thy God." 12 However,
what these soldiers had done was not necessarily a
mortal sin, and so Judas and his men, after bless
ing the just judgment of God, betook themselves
to prayer, and "making a gathering [taking up
a collection], he sent twelve thousand drachmas
of silver to Jerusalem for sacrifice to be offered
for the sins of the dead." Both Judas and his

10 Sess. XXV: ". . . Purgatoriunt n Prop. Damn, a Leone X., prop.

esse animasque ibi detentas fideliuin 37: " Purgatorium non potest pro-

suffragiis, potissimum vero accepta- bari ex Scriptura, quae sit in ca-

bili aUaris sacrificio iuvari." (Den- none."

zinger-Bannwart, n. 983). 12 Deut. VII, 25.

8o THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

people, as well as the priests of the Temple, evi
dently believed that those who die in the grace
of God can obtain forgiveness of venial sins
and temporal punishments through the suf
frages of the living. This belief is confirmed by
the sacred writer when he adds : "It is therefore
a holy and wholesome thought 13 to pray for the
dead, that they may be loosed from sins."

14

Protestants deny the cogency of this argument on the
ground that the Book of Machabees is apocryphal. But
the historical authenticity of the incident sufficiently
proves that belief in Purgatory, so far from being an in
vention of the " Papists," was common among the Jews
long before the beginning of the Christian era.15

From the New Testament we will quote the
remarkable utterance of our Lord recorded in
Matth. XII, 32: "Whosoever shall speak . . .
against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven
him neither in this world, nor in the world to
come." 16 The "world to come" (a^v ^eAAw)
plainly means life after death. Hence, ac
cording to our Saviour's own testimony, there
must be some sins that are forgiven after death.17

13 bffia Kal cvffeprjs eirivoia- 1? This interpretation is favored

14 TTJS d/waprias aTroXu^^at. (2 by Augustine (De Civ. Dei, XXI,
Mach. XII, 45). 24) and other Fathers (see H'urter,

15 Cfr. Mayer, Das Judentum, pp. Compendium Theol. Dogmat., Vol.
465 sqq., Ratisbon 1893. Ill, n. 823). St. Gregory the Great,

16 Matth. XII, 32: " Qui autetn e. g., teaches: "In qua sententia
dixerit [yerbum] contra Spiritum datur intellegi, quasdam culpas in
sanctum, non remittetur ei neque in hoc saeculo, quasdam vero in futuro
hoc saeculo neque in futuro." posse relaxari." (Dial., IV, 29).

PUR'GATORY 81

b) The belief of the early Church is evident
from the immemorial custom of praying for the
dead, offering the Holy Sacrifice, and giving alms
for their benefit.

Tertullian mentions anniversary masses for the dead.18
That he had Purgatory in mind appears from his advice
to a widow, " to pray for the soul of her husband, beg
ging repose for him, and ... to have sacrifice offered
up for him every year on the day of his death." 19

This pious custom is confirmed by many sepulchral
inscriptions found in the catacombs, in which the de
parted ask for the prayers of their surviving friends or
beg God for " peace and refreshment." 20

The Fathers expressly inculcate the doctrine which
inspired these pious practices. In the Acts of St. Per-
petua we read that she beheld her brother Dinocrates,
who had died a heathen and was " suffering terrible
torments, released from the place of punishment through
her prayers." 21 St. Basil affirms the existence of " a
place for the purification of souls " and of " a cleansing
fire." : St. Augustine appeals to his friends to pray for
his pious mother, St. Monica, and instructs them as to
the most effective way of helping her soul.23 There is
no doubt," he says in another place, " that the dead are

is De Corona Mil., 3: " Ob/a- Deus refrlgeret." — Cfr. Kraus, Real-

tiones pro defunctis annud die fad- enzyklopadie der christ lichen Alter-

mus." tiimer, Vol. II, s. v. " Refrigerium,"

19 De Monogamia, 10: " Debet Freiburg 1886; J. P. Kirsch, Die
pro anima eius orare et refrigerium Akklamationen und Gebete der alt-
interim adpostulare ei et . . . of- christlichen Grabinschriften, Co-
ferre annuls diebus dormitionis logne 1898.

suae." — For other Patristic testimo- 21 Acta Martyr. S. Perpetuae et

nies see Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- Socior.

ments, Vol. II, pp. 376 sq. 22 -^upiov K0.6a.piff/Jiov if/vx&v', —

20 " Pax et refrigeratio,'' as e. g. Kaddpffiov -rrvp. (In Is., IX, 19).
in the formula: " Spintum tuum 23 Confess., IX, 13.

82 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

aided by the prayers of holy Church, by the salutary sacri
fice, and by the alms which are poured out for their
souls." 2*

These passages from the writings of the Fathers could
easily be multiplied. Even Calvin was constrained to
admit that the custom of praying for the dead may be
traced to the early days of Christianity.25 Thinking Prot
estants keenly feel the gap in their theological system
caused by the denial of Purgatory. Thus Dr. Hase says :
" Most people when they die are probably too good for
Hell, yet surely too bad for Heaven. It must be frankly
confessed that the Protestantism of the Reformers is un
clear on this point, its justified denial [ ?] not yet having
advanced to the stage of affirmation." 26 The Catholic
dogma in this as in so many other cases agrees per
fectly with the postulates of reason.

24 Sermones, 172: " Orationibus et trecentos annos usu receptum fuit,
sanctae Ecclesiae et sacrificio salu- ut precationes fierent pro defunctis."
tari et elemosynis, quae pro eorum 26 Handbuch der protestantischen
spiritibus erogantur, non est dubi- Polemik gegen die romisch-kath.
tondum mortuos adiuvari, ut cum Kirche, p. 445, Leipzig 1862: "Die
eis misericordius agatur a Domino, meisten Sterbenden sind wohl zu gut
quam eorum peccata meruerunt; hoc fur die Holle, aber sicker zu schlecht
enim a Patribus traditum universa fiir den Himmel. Man muss off en
observat Ecclesia." (Cfr. the same sugestehen, dass hier im reformatori-
writer's Enchirid., 60). — The argu- schen Protestantismus eine Unklar-
ment from Tradition is developed heit vorliegt, indem seine berechtigte
more fully by Pesch, Praelect. Dog- Verneinung noch nicht sur Be-
mat., Vol. IX, and ed., pp. 283 sqq. jahung fortgeschritten war."

25 Inst., Ill, 5, § 10 : " Ante mille

SECTION 2

NATURE AND DURATION OF PURGATORY

The Church has defined nothing with regard to
the nature of Purgatory except that the poor souls
detained there are in a passing state of punish
ment and suffer "purgatorial pains/' * Like the
pains of Hell, those of Purgatory are twofold,
viz.: pain of loss (poena damni) and pain of
sense (poena sensus).

i. THE PAIN OF Loss. — The poena damni for
the poor souls in Purgatory consists in their be
ing deprived of the beatific vision of God. This
temporary deprivation constitutes the essence of
the state of purgation. It is the severest pun
ishment that can be inflicted upon a disembodied
soul. The consciousness of being separated from
the Creator, who is so near and yet so far, causes
terrible suffering, which is enhanced still more by
the knowledge that the venial sins and punish
ments due to sin could have been expiated
by contrition, confession, prayer, almsgiving, and
other good works so easily performed in the way
faring state.

i " Poenis purgatoriis; " v. supra, p. 78.
83

84 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

Nevertheless, their sad condition does not drive the
suffering souls to despair or to commit new sins, as Luther
falsely claimed.2

For the rest, it would be no easier to write a psychology
of the poor souls in Purgatory than of the damned in
Hell. We earthly pilgrims are incapable of forming
an adequate conception of the spiritual suffering involved
in even a temporary privation of the beatific vision.
Shorn of all earthly impediments, and placed beyond the
world of sense which veils the things of the spirit,
the poor souls in Purgatory concentrate their attention
on God. But God hides and withdraws from them,
which causes them to be tormented incessantly by a
veritable agony of love. There is nothing improb
able in St. Bonaventure's conjecture that " the sever
est pain of Purgatory exceeds the most violent known
on earth," 3 but we need not necessarily adopt the opinion
of St. Thomas that " even the slightest torture of Purga
tory is worse than all the sufferings one can endure in this
world." 4 There is no certainty to be had in these mat
ters.5

2. THE PAIN OF SENSE. — Whether besides the
poena damni the poor souls suffer a poena sen-
sus, is doubtful. Still more difficult is it to an
swer the question whether this additional punish
ment, if it exist, is caused by a material me
dium similar to the fire of Hell. Theologians

2 Prop. Damn, a Leone X, prop. 3 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 20,

38: " Animae in purgatorio non art. i, qu. 2.

sunt securae de earum salute, saltern 4 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 21,

non omnes." — Prop. 39: "Animae qu. i, art. i.

in purgatorio peccant sine intermis- 5 Cfr. Bellarmine, De Purgatorio,

sione, quamdiu quaerunt requiem et II, 14.
horrent poenas."

PURGATORY 85

consider it extremely probable that such is the
case.

a) The phrase employed by the Florentine
Council, "animas poenis purgatoriis purgari"
seems to point to the existence of some positive
torment over and above the poena danini. This
assumption gains strength from the concurrent
teaching of the Fathers and Schoolmen.

The difficulty begins when we attempt to ascertain the
precise nature of the sensitive pain experienced by the
poor souls. The Church has issued no definition with
regard to the existence of a purgatorial fire, and hence
nothing can be asserted on this head as of faith or even
as fidei proximum. When Cardinal Bessarion at the
Council of Florence argued against the existence of a
real fire in Purgatory, the Greeks were assured that the
Roman Church had never pronounced dogmatically on
the subject, and nothing was said about it in the Decree
of Union. The Greek view that Purgatory is a place of
darkness, smoke, and mourning (locus caliginis, tenebra-
rum, turbinis, moeroris) is too vague to enable us to form
any positive idea as to its nature.0

b) In the Western Church belief in the exist
ence of a material purgatorial fire, analogous to
the fire of Hell, is common. Hence the name
"ignis purgatorius" ( German, Fegefeuer) . This
view derives a certain probability from I Cor. Ill,
ii sqq.

6 On the teaching of the Russian der Auffassung der russischen Or-
schismatics see A. Bukowski, S.J., thodoxie, pp. 143 sqq., Paderborn
Die Genugtuung fur die Siinde nach 1911.

86 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

a) In warning the faithful of Corinth against cer
tain dangerous doctrines that were propagated among
them, the Apostle says : " Foundation can no man lay
other than that which is [already] laid, which is Jesus
Christ. But if a man buildeth upon the foundation,
[whether it be] gold, silver, precious stones, wood, grass
[or] straw, — the work of each man shall become mani
fest. For the Day shall declare it, because [that day]
is to be disclosed in fire, and the worth of each man's
work shall that fire assay. If any man's work abide,
which he hath built thereupon, he shall receive reward:
if any man's work be burnt up, he shall lose his reward,
but himself shall be saved, yet as [one that hath passed]
through fire." 7 No doubt the test by fire is quite as much
a figure of speech as building upon a foundation of gold,
silver, precious stones, wood, grass or straw. But the
concluding sentence, which asserts that a man shall be
saved as through fire, seems to indicate that there is a real
fire in Purgatory.8

(3) The Pauline passage is interpreted literally by some
of the Fathers. Thus St. Ambrose writes : " When Paul
says, * yet as through fire/ he means that he will indeed be
saved, but will have to suffer the pain of fire, in order
that, purged, by fire, he be saved." 8 St. Augustine, on

7 i Cor. Ill, 12 sqq. : E£ 5^ Tts armine, De Purgatorio, I, 5; Al.
eiroiKoSofjiei eirl rbv 6e/J,e\iov TOVTOV Schafer, Erkl'drung der beiden Brief e
Xpvaov, apyvpov, \i6ovs ripiovs, an die Korinther, pp. 70 sqq.; J.
£v\a, -x,6pTOv, /cctXd/iT?/', e/cdorou TO MacRory, The Epistles of St. Paul
epyov (fravepbv yevriffCTai' ij yap to the Corinthians, Part I, pp. 38
•fjfjiepa dr)\6(rei, OTI iv irvpl diroKa- sqq.; Hugh Pope, O.P., in the
AuTrreTcu, Kal CK&CTTOV rb epyov Irish Theol, Quarterly, Vol. IV
birolov effriv, rb irvp So/ct/idcret. (1909)* No. 16, pp. 441-456.

Ei TWOS rb %pyov /wei/ei d CTTOLKO- ^ In Ps., 118: "Quum Paulus di-

dofjirjffev, [AiffObv X^^erai' ci TWOS cit: 'sic tamen, quasi per tgnem,

TO %pyov Kara/caijcreraij fi7/u,iw0?7<re- ostendit quidem ilium salvum fu-

TO.I, avTbs d& ffuO^ffeTaif oCrcos 5^ turum, sed poenam ignis passurum,

us dia irvpos. ut per ignem purgatus fiat salvus."

8 On i Cor. Ill, ii sqq., see Bell-

PURGATORY 87

the other hand, interprets the phrase " quasi per ignem "
figuratively, applying it to " the fiery furnace of earthly
tribulation." Origen says : " Whoever is saved, is saved
through fire, in order that, if he contains an admixture of
dross, it be dissolved by fire, so that all may become solid
gold." 10 This passage and another similar one in Ori-
gen's writings ll show that he regarded the purgatorial
fire as a figure of speech. In this he followed his master,
Clement of Alexandria, who called Purgatory " a spiritual
fire." 12 On the whole it may be said that the number of
Greek Fathers who believe in the existence of a real
fire in Purgatory is quite small. Among the Fathers
of the Latin Church some favor the literal interpretation.
Thus St. Gregory the Great speaks of those who after this
life " will expiate their faults by purgatorial flames," and
adds that the pain will be more intense than any that
can be suffered in this life.13' In another place he says :
" But it must be believed that there is a purgatorial
fire for [the expiation of] venial sins before the [Gen
eral] Judgment." 14 But even in the West there is not a
sufficient consensus patrum for a solid argument from
Tradition.

y) This fact did not, however, prevent the Scholastics
from confidently asserting the existence of a material fire
in Purgatory. The value of their teaching is discounted
by the fact that they were uncritical, ascribed too much
importance to unauthenticated visions and private rev
elations, and tried to prove the reality of the purga
torial fire from the existence of volcanoes, and so forth.
We need not wonder, in view of such insufficient argu-

10 Horn, in Exod., 6. 14 Dial., IV, 39: " Sed tamen

11 De Principals, II, 10. de quibusdam levibus culpis ante

12 rb (ppovipov Trup. (Stromata, iudicium [universale] esse purga-
VII, 6). toriiis ignis credendus est."

is Ps. Ill Poenit., n. i.

88 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

ments, that a number of modern theologians (e. g. Klee,
Mohler, Dieringer) deny, or at least doubt, the exist
ence of a material fire in Purgatory. However, it is well
to remember, in the words of Cardinal Bellarmine, that
" If there is no real fire, there will be something much
more terrible, which God has prepared in order to demon
strate His power." 15

3. How THE POOR SOULS ARE CLEANSED IN
PURGATORY. — Clement of Alexandria taught 16
that the poor souls can effect their own spiritual
amendment by submitting patiently to the tor
ments of Purgatory.17 Whatever we may hold
on this subject, one thing is certain, namely, that
no merits can be acquired in Purgatory.18

A more important and more practical problem
is, how the poor souls expiate their venial sins and
the punishments due to their forgiven mortal sins,
and how they get rid of their evil habits.

a) Forgiveness of venial sins can be obtained
in three different ways : ( i ) by unconditional re
mission on the part of God; (2) by suffering and
the performance of penitential works, and (3) by
an act of contrition.

(i) Absolutely speaking, God can forgive all sins un
conditionally. But in the present economy He has chosen
to make contrition a condition of forgiveness, and hence it

15 De Purg., II, 14: "Si ibi est ostendere voluit."
verus ignis, erit omnino acerrimus 16 See Stromata, VII, 12.

. . . si non ignis verus, erit aliquid 17 devrtpa Traideia-

multo horribilius, quale Deus parare 18 Cfr. Oswald, Eschatologie, p.

potuit, qui potentiam suawt in hoc 119.

PURGATORY 89

is not reasonable to suppose that venial sins are forgiven
unconditionally in Purgatory.

(2) What does God demand of the poor souls as
a condition of forgiveness ? Can it be mere passive suf
fering (satispassio) ? This might wipe out the reatus
poenae, but it could never expunge the reatus culpae,
of which a sinner can rid himself only by an act of
contrition (motus displicentiae). Hence the only means
by which venial sins can be forgiven in Purgatory is
contrition. St. Thomas says : " Venial sins are remit
ted after this life, even with regard to guilt, in the
same way in which they are remitted in this life, namely,
by an act of charity towards God, expressing re
pugnance for the venial sins committed in this life.
However, since it is no longer possible to acquire merits
in the world beyond, such an act of love, while it removes
the impediment of venial guilt, does not deserve absolu
tion or a decrease of punishment." 19

When does the soul make the act of contrition which
wipes out venial sin? Most probably immediately after
its separation from the body, when the soul is for the first
time alone with God.20 Some theologians, however, think
that the process of purgation is gradual.21

b) It is not difficult to understand how the tem
poral punishments due to sin are expiated in Pur
gatory. The soul is no longer able to make satis-

19 De Male, qu. 7, art. n: dilectionis motus in eis tollit quidem

" Venialia remittuntur eis post hanc impedimentum renialis culpae, non

T'itam etiam quantum ad culpam eo tamen meretur absolutionem vel di-

modo, quo remittuntur in hac vita, minutionent poenae."

scil. per actum caritatis in Deum re- 20 Cfr. Suarez, Comment, in S.

pugnantem vcnialibus in hac vita TheoL, III, disp. n, sect. 4.

commissis. Quia tamen post hanc 21 Cfr. Fr. Schmid, Die Seelen-

vitam non est status merendi, ille lauterung im Jenseits, Brixen 1907.

90 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

faction, and hence can atone only by suffering.
This suffering, technically called satispassio*2
has neither meritorious nor satisfactory value be
cause the poor souls are no longer able to do any
thing for themselves, but have entered into the
night "in which no man can labor/'

The duration of Purgatory is entirely a matter of con
jecture. Some theologians think that the poor souls are
detained for a long time; others, that the period of
purgation is brief. The truth probably lies between
these two extremes. God, being infinitely just, owes it
to Himself to punish every sin according to its guilt and
to exclude from Heaven whatever is unclean. But He
is also infinitely merciful, and His mercy has provided
an effective means of shortening the sufferings of the
poor souls through the intercession of the Church and
the faithful on earth.

Dominicus Soto and Maldonatus maintained that no
one remains in Purgatory longer than ten years. This
view is untenable, and one of the practical conclusions
drawn from it, namely, that legacies for the saying of
masses for the dead become invalid after ten years, has
been formally condemned by Alexander VII.23 How
ever, from her acceptance of unlimited mass stipends it
does not follow that the Church believes the sufferings of
the poor souls in Purgatory to be of extremely long dura
tion. God, in consideration of a great number of masses
and suffrages which He has foreseen from all eternity,
may release a soul immediately after death. On the other

22 On the nature of satispassio see 1666, prop. 43- " Annuum legatum
St. Bonaventure, Comment, in Sent., pro anima relictum non durat plus
IV, dist. 20, p. i, art. i, qu. 3. quam per decem annos." (Den-

23 Prop. Damn, die 18. Martii, zinger-Bannwart, n. 1143).

PURGATORY 91

hand, no one can be sure that Purgatory does not last for
centuries in the case of souls who enter eternity with an
exceptionally heavy load of venial sins and temporal
punishments.

The faithful who will be alive at the second coming of
our Lord will not, of course, be able to expiate their
venial sins and temporal punishments in Purgatory, for
there will be no Purgatory after the Last Judgment.
With regard to these survivors it is piously believed that
God will grant them a general indulgence, or that the
tribulations and sufferings they will have to undergo in
the flesh will make up for their deficiencies.

c) A word concerning the evil habits which re
main in the soul after conversion.

There are two classes of evil habits (habitus), viz.:
those which are rooted in the sensitive faculties (drunk
enness, impurity, etc.), and those which are based on
the spiritual powers of the will (pride, excessive ambi
tion, etc.). The former are eradicated as it were auto
matically at the moment of death, when the sensitive fac
ulties become inoperative. The latter accompany the soul
into Purgatory, but are probably destroyed by an act
of love elicited at the threshold of eternity. Should
these habits continue to exist in Purgatory, there can be
no doubt that they are eventually cast off at the gate of
Heaven. They cannot be expiated by suffering because
they have already been the subject of contrition, and,
like concupiscence, are neither sins nor deserving of
punishment.

SECTION 3

SUCCORING THE DEAD

i. THE COMMUNION OF SAINTS. — The Coun
cil of Trent says that the poor souls in Purgatory
"are aided by the suffrages of the faithful, and
principally by the acceptable sacrifice of the
altar/' 1 The efficacy of this intercession is based
on the Communion of Saints.2

a) By the Communion of Saints we understand
the spiritual union of the faithful with one an
other, with the blessed Angels, the Elect in
Heaven, and the poor souls in Purgatory, under
the supernatural headship of Christ, who is the
font and well-spring of all grace ; 3 or, to put it
somewhat differently, the mystic union of the mili
tant, the triumphant, and the suffering Church of
Christ.

b) The ninth article of the Apostles' Creed
teaches that there is a visible communion on earth,
as well as an invisible interchange of blessings
between the militant and the triumphant Church,

1 Sess. XV: ". . . catholica EC- 2 " Credo sanctorum communio-

elesia . . . docuerit, purgatorium nem." (Apostles' Creed).
esse, animasque ibi detentas Udelium 3 On the gratia capitis see Pohle-

suffragiis, potissimum vero accepta- Preuss, Christology, pp. 239 sqq.
bill altaris sacrificio iuvari. ..."

92

PURGATORY 93

of which latter Purgatory is a preparatory
stage. This has always been Catholic teaching.4
Whereas an impassible gulf separates the
Blessed in Heaven from the demons,5 the mem
bers of Christ's mystic body in Heaven and
on earth are closely bound together by a super
natural communion of blessings,6 of which the
innermost essence and principle is sanctifying
grace, or theological love, and, to some extent,
theological faith. For this reason even those
Catholics who are guilty of mortal sin belong to
the militant Church and consequently, in a
restricted sense, also to the Communion of Saints.
As for the angels, they form part of the ecclesia
triumphans, and as such participate in the com-
munio sanctorum.

Through the Communion of Saints the faithful
on earth, especially those who are in the state of
sanctifying grace, share in all the Masses, pray
ers, and good works offered up by the militant
Church. They are moreover benefited by the in
tercession of the angels and the just in Heaven,
and they can aid the poor souls in Purga
tory by prayers, indulgences, alms, and other
good works, especially by having the Sacrifice of
the Mass offered for them. The first and second
of the above-mentioned propositions having been

4Cfr. A. Harnack, Apostol. Clan- 6 Cfr. Luke XVI, 26.

bensbekenntnis, gth ed., pp. 32 sqq., 6 Cfr. i Cor. XII, 24 sqq.

Berlin 1892.

94 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

dealt with in previous volumes of this series,7 it
remains to prove the third, viz.: that the liv
ing faithful can succor the dead by works of satis
faction.8

2. THE DOGMA. — That the souls of the faith
ful departed are aided by the suffrages of the
living follows as a corollary from the dogma of
Purgatory.9

Theologians are wont to quote in confirmation
of this teaching certain scriptural texts, which
are not, however, entirely convincing. Such a
text is, e. g.f Tob. IV, 18: "Lay out thy bread
and thy wine upon the burial of a just man, and
do not eat and drink thereof with the wicked/'
Some exegetes interpret this passage as inculcat
ing the usefulness to the dead of a meal given to
the poor in their memory.11 But this is by no
means certain. Another, equally inconclusive
text often quoted in this connection is I Cor. XV,
29, where the Apostle speaks of persons "who are
baptized for the dead." As Dr. MacRory points
out, "this metaphorical sense of Baptism (as a
baptism of mortification and affliction for the

7 Pohle-Preuss, Mariology, pp. 142 the History of Dogma, London
sqq.; The Sacraments, Vol. II, pp. 19"); Chs. F. McGinnis, The Com-
376 sqq. munion of Saints, St. Louis 1913.

8 On the dogma of the Communion 9 V. supra, Sect. i.

of Saints see J. P. Kirsch, Die Lehre 10 Tob. IV, 18: " Panem tuum

•von der Gemeinschaft der Heiligen et vinum tuum super septilturam iusti

im christlichen Altertum, Mayence constitue et noli ex eo manducare et

1900 (tr. by J. R. McKee, The Doc- bibere cum peccatoribus."

trine of the Communion of Saints 11 Cfr. Bellarmine, De Purgatorio,

in the Ancient Church; A Study in I, 3.

PURGATORY 95

dead) is very rare, being found only in the two
passages just referred to, and there in the mouth
of Christ in reference, not to ordinary mortifica
tions, but to His baptism in His blood. This be
ing so, is it likely that the Corinthians could be
expected to think of a metaphorical baptism here ?
Besides, if this were the sense, the Apostle, as
Estius points out, should have written, 'who bap
tize themselves/ i. e. undergo voluntary mortifi
cations, rather than 'who are baptized/ " 12

3. SUFFRAGES FOR THE DEAD. — In regard to
suffrages for the dead (suffragia pro mortuis) we
may ask four questions: (a) How many kinds
of suffrages are there? (b) Who profits by
them? (c) In what manner do they advantage
the dead? and (d) By whom can they be offered?

a) There are three different kinds of suffrages
by which the living can assist the dead, viz.:
the Mass, prayers, and good works. This dis
tinction is very old.13

While good works are mostly typified by alms, there are
others, such as fasting, scourging, making pilgrimages,
etc. The shedding of tears alone is not effective. St.
Chrysostom says, " the dead are not aided by tears, but by
prayer, intercession, and alms." 14

If a man has forgotten or neglected to make restitution
for some injury done to his neighbor, and others make it

12 The Epistles of St. Paul to the 13 V. supra, Sect. i.

Corinthians, Part I, pp. 239 sq., 14 Horn, in Ep. I. ad Cor., 41.

Dublin 1915. Cfr. Bellarmine, De
Purg., I, 6.

96 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

for him after his death, does he derive any spiritual
benefit from the act ? D. Soto 15 and Bellarmine16 answer
this question in the negative, and they are probably right.
For the dead man, in omitting to make restitution, either
committed a sin or he did not. If he committed a sin, he
must expiate that sin, regardless of what his heirs or friends
may do. If he did not sin, he incurred no punishment.

Offering up indulgences for the dead is not a distinct
class of good works, because the efficacy of indulgences is
conditioned upon prayer and good works. Neither are
the ceremonies of Christian burial to be regarded as a
special kind of suffrage, for to bury the dead is an act of
corporal mercy and therefore belongs to the category
of good works.17 The same applies to the preparation of
corpses for burial, the burning of candles at the bier,
sprinkling dead bodies with holy water, accompanying
them to their last resting-place, decorating the graves,
etc., etc. All these are good works which help the dead
if performed with the right intention.18

Cremation is not a good work but " a detestable abuse "
in which the Church forbids Catholics to cooperate.19
The practice of burning dead bodies, though in itself not
opposed to Catholic dogma, was prohibited because it was
originally introduced and is now advocated chiefly by
avowed enemies of religion.20

15 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. May 19, 1886. — Regarding certain
45, qu. 2, art. 3. conditions under which such persons

16 De Purgatorio, II, 16. may be left in good faith, see the

17 Cfr. 2 Kings II, 5; Matth. decree of July 27, 1892, issued in
XXVI. 12. reply to certain questions asked by

18 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa the Archbishop of Freiburg (Cath-
Theol., Supplement., qu. 71, art. n; olic Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, p. 482).
Bellarmine, De Purgatorio, II, 19; 20 On cremation in general cfr.
L. Ruland, Geschichte der kirchlichen Wm. Devlin, s. v., in the Cath.
Leichenfeier, Ratisbon 1901. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV; Ada S.

19 See the Decree of the S. Con- Sedis, XXV, 63; Am. Eccles. Re-
gregation of the Holy Office, of view, XII, 499; Fortnightly Review,

PURGATORY 97

b) Suffrages offered for the dead cannot bene
fit the just in Heaven or the damned in Hell, but
they can and do benefit the poor souls in Purga
tory. The just do not need human assistance.
This is especially true of baptized infants and the
blessed martyrs. St. Augustine says it is an in
sult to pray for a martyr.21 The ancient practice,
evidenced by the teaching of the Fathers and the
early liturgies, of praying and offering sacrifice
for deceased Apostles, martyrs, prophets, and
saints, was inspired by a desire to thank God for
having glorified them in Heaven. We pray for
them, says St. Cyril of Jerusalem, "in order that
through their prayers and supplications God
may receive our own."22 And St. Augustine:
"When sacrifices ... are offered on behalf of
the very good, they are thank-offerings, . . . and
in the case of the very bad, even though they do
not help the dead, [these sacrifices] afford conso
lation to the living." 23

c) To understand how the suffrages of the liv
ing can benefit the poor souls we must recall the
distinction between the meritorious and the sat-

St. Louis, Mo., Vol. XXIII, No. 17; 22 Cat. Mystag., V, 9: ". . . ut

A. Besi, Die Beerdigung und Ver- Deus orationibus illorum et depreca-

brennung der Leichen, Ratisbon tionibtts suscipiat preces nostras."

1889; G. H'assl, Gottesacker oder (Migne, P. G., XXXIII, 1115).

Leichenofen, 1898. 23 Enchiridion, no: " Sacrificia

ziSerm., 17: " Iniuriam facit . . . pro valde bonis gratiarum ac-

martyri, qui orat pro martyre." tiones sunt; pro valde malts, si nulla

(Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, M-ariology, p. adiumenta mortuorum, viventium

145). consolationes sunt."

98 THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

isfactory value of good works.24 The meritori
ous value of a good work consists in an increase
of sanctifying grace and is not transferable.
Its satisfactory value consists in an expiation of
punishment due, and may be surrendered in favor
of another. It is the satisfactory value alone
that God accepts on behalf of the dead.

From this point of view we can appreciate the " heroic
act of charity " approved by Pius IX, which consists in
the voluntary relinquishment for the benefit of the poor
souls of all claim to the satisfactory fruits of one's good
works as well as to the suffrages of one's friends after
death. However, it is doubtful whether God accepts
such a sacrifice and actually deprives those who make it
of the satisfactory values which they surrender. That
He approves of the heroism that dictates such a noble act
goes without saying, for it is in full accord with St.
Paul's exclamation, " I wished myself to be an anathema
from Christ, for my brethren." 25

Over and above their meritorious and satisfactory value,
prayers for the dead have an impetratory value, inas
much as they move God to hear the petitioner's prayer,
qua prayer, regardless of the value of the satisfaction
offered.

With regard to indulgences it is commonly held that
they may be applied to the poor souls " by way of
suffrage" (per modum suffragii).2Q

d) We can offer suffrages for the dead either

24 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol, 26 The student will find this sub-
Supplement., qu. 71, art 4. ject treated more fully in Pohle-

25 Rom. IX, 3 : " Optabam enim Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill,
ego ipse anathema esse a Christo pro pp. 260 sqq.

fratribus ineis."

PURGATORY 99

by performing, or causing others to perform, a
good work that produces its effects ex opere
operato (e. g. the Mass) ; or by creating satisfac
tory or impetratory values for the benefit of the
poor souls by giving alms, reciting the office of the
dead, etc. In the former case it is sufficient that
the good work be performed to secure its ef
fects; 2T whereas in the latter case all those condi
tions must be fulfilled which are required to ren
der a good work meritorious, principally this,
that the applicant be in the state of sanctifying
grace.28 An act by which no merits or satisfac
tions are gained for the doer himself, cannot ap
ply such merits or satisfactions to others.29

Can the just, who have arrived at the status termini,
intercede for the poor souls in Purgatory?

The just who have arrived at the status termini are di
vided into two classes: (i) the Angels and Saints in
Heaven, and (2) the poor souls in Purgatory.

The liturgical prayers of the Church show that the
Angels and Saints, especially the Blessed Virgin Mary
and St. Michael, are powerful intercessors for the dead.80
Whether the poor souls can assist one another is a
more difficult question to answer. We know that,
being in a state of punishment, they need assistance
themselves. To assume that they can obtain release

27 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- so ". . . ut intercedentibus omni-
mcnts, Vol. I, pp. 122 sqq. bus Sanctis tuis pietatis tuae clemen-

28 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace: Ac- tia omnium delictorum suorum ac
tual and Habitual, pp. 82 sqq., 413. niam consequantur." (Roman Mis-

20 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., sal).
Supplement., qu. 71, art. 3.

ioo THE LAST THINGS OF MAN

from Purgatory by their own prayers, would seem to
contradict the revealed teaching that they are unable
to acquire merits or even quasi-merits.31 However, ex
pressly excluding this untenable corollary, we may hold
that the poor souls are able to pray for one another ef
fectively. Suarez 32 and Bellarmine 33 furthermore main
tain that the poor souls can aid the faithful on earth by
their intercession. This is, however, opposed to the teach
ing of St. Thomas, who in reply to the objection that the
poor souls can help us because they are friends of God
says : " Those who are in Purgatory do not yet
enjoy the vision of the Divine Logos, which would en
able them to know what we think and speak, and there
fore we do not implore their suffrages, but those of the
living." 34 The further objection that the poor souls must
have power with God because they are impeccable, he re
futes thus : " Though they are superior to us in as far as
they can no longer sin, they are inferior to us as regards
the punishments which they suffer, and therefore they
are in no condition to pray [for others], but rather in
a state where they need the prayers of others." 35

Nevertheless those who piously invoke the poor souls,
or promise them Masses, need not be disturbed, because
it is probable that they can aid us by their interces
sion, and quite possible that God may aid both the
poor souls and those who pray for them without the

31 On the meritum de congruo ideo eorum suffragia non imploramus
see Pohle-Preuss, Grace: Actual orando, sed a vivis petimus collo-
and Habitual, pp. 430 sqq. quendo."

32 De Oratione, I, u. 35 Op. cit.t art. n, ad 3: " Illi,

33 De Purgatorio, II, 16. qui sunt in purgatorio, etsi sunt

34 Summa Theol., aa 2ae, qu. 83, superiores nobis propter impeccabili-
art. 4, ad 3 : " Illi, qui sunt in tatem, sunt tamen inferiores quantum
purgatorio, nondum fruuntur visions ad poenas, quas patiuntur, et se-
Verbi, ut possint cognoscere ea, cundum hoc non sunt in statu oran-
quae nos cogitamus vel dicimus, et di, sed magis ut oretur pro eis."

PURGATORY 101

knowledge of the former. Let us not forget our Sa
viour's dictum : " Blessed are the merciful, for they shall
obtain mercy." 3<J The Church in her liturgy prays for
the poor souls, but never invokes their intercession.

READINGS : — S. J. Hunter, S.J., Outlines of Dogmatic Theology,
Vol. Ill, pp. 442 sqq.— Wilhelm-Scannell, A Manual of Catholic
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 553 sqq.— Wiseman, Lectures on the Prin
cipal Doctrines and Practices of the Catholic Church, Sect. XI,
London 1836 (frequently reprinted).— Coleridge, The Prisoners
of the King, London 1897.— Canty, Purgatory, Dogmatic and
Scholastic, Dublin, 1886.— Loch, Das Dogma der griechischen
Kirche vom Purgatorium, Ratisbon 1842.— Redner, Das Fege
feuer, Ratisbon 1856.— Bautz, Das Fegefeuer, Mayence 1883.—
Tappehorn, Das Fegefeuer, Dillingen 1891.— St. Binet, S.J., Der
Freund der armen Seelen oder die kath. Lehre vom jenseitigen
Reinigungsorte, Freiburg 1896.— Fr. Schmid, Das Fegefeuer nach
kath. Lehre, Brixen 1904. — IDEM, Die Seelenlduterung im Jenseits,
Brixen 1907.— Bellarmine, De Purgatorio.-C3.sa.ccia, II Purga-
torio, Biella 1863. — B. Jungmann, De Novissimis, Ratisbon 1871.
— Oxenham, Catholic Eschatology, London 1878.— Sadlier, Pur
gatory: Doctrinal, Historical, Practical, New York 1886. — Atz-
berger, Geschichte der christlichen Eschatologie, Freiburg 1896. —
E. J. Hanna, art. " Purgatory," in Vol. XII of the Catholic
Encyclopedia, pp. 375-380.— H. Thurston, S.J., The Memory of
the Dead, London 1916 (contains a brief but fairly comprehen
sive sketch of the Catholic practice of prayer for the dead from
the first centuries of Christianity to the close of the Middle
Ages).— Delloue-Leahy, Solution of the Great Problem, New
York 1917, pp. 214 sqq.

36 Matth. V, 7: " Beati misericordes, quoniam ipsi misericordiam con-
sequentur,"

PART II

ESCHATOLOGY OF THE HU
MAN RACE

Parallel with the consummation of the individ
ual runs the consummation of the human race,
which will take place as soon as the predestined
number is reached.

When "the last day" * will come no one can tell.
All calculations and speculations from St. Augus
tine to the present have merely confirmed our
Blessed Saviour's dictum that God alone knows
the day and the hour when the Son of man will
come to judge the living and the dead.2

Following St. Augustine's example3 we shall
consider, (i) the Signs that are to Precede the
General Judgment, (2) the Resurrection of the
Flesh, and (3) the Last Judgment.

1 John VI, 39 sq. tebit similiter eorum, qui adhuc com-

2 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., putare non cessant."
Supplementum, qu. 77, art. 2 : 3 De Civitate Dei, XX, 30.
". . . quorum falsitas patet et pa~

102

CHAPTER I

THE SIGNS THAT ARE TO PRECEDE THE GENERAL
JUDGMENT

Revelation tells us l that the General Judgment
will be preceded by certain definite signs. Hence
we may conclude that the world will not come to
an end before these signs appear. On the other
hand, no one can foretell the exact day of the
Last Judgment from these signs. It is only when
they all concur that a reasonable conjecture will
become possible, and even then there will still be
danger of self-deception. Cf r. 2 Thess. II, i sq. :
"We beseech you, brethren, touching the com
ing of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gath
ered together unto Him, that you be not readily
shaken out of your right mind nor kept in alarm,
-whether by spirit-utterance or by discourse or
by a letter purporting to be from us, — as though
the day of the Lord were upon us." 2 As the
precise time of the Last Judgment is known only

1 Matth. XXIV, 37 sqq. ; 2 Pet. cito moveamini vestro sensu, neque
III, 3 sqq. terreamini, ncque per spiritum, neque

2 2 Thess. II, i sq. : " Rogamus per sermonem, neque per epistolani
autem vos fratres per adventum tamquam per nos missam, quasi in-
Domini nostri lesu Christi, et no- stet dies Domini."

strae congregationis in ipsum: ut non

103

104 THE END OF THE WORLD

to God, it were idle for us to speculate about it.
The principal signs or events usually enumer
ated by theologians as preceding the Last Judg
ment are :

(1) The General Preaching of the Christian
Religion all over the earth ;

(2) The Conversion of the Jews ;

(3) The Return of Henoch and Elias;

(4) A Great Apostasy and the Reign of Anti
christ ;

(5) Extraordinary Disturbances of Nature;

(6) A Universal Conflagration.

i. GENERAL PREACHING OF THE CHRISTIAN
RELIGION. — The first of the predicted signs was
announced by our Divine Saviour Himself,
Matth. XXIV, 14 : "And this gospel of the king
dom shall be preached in the whole world, for a
testimony to all nations, and then shall the con
summation come." 3

It must not be concluded from this prophecy that
all men will ultimately embrace the Christian religion.
Our Lord says that the Gospel will be preached to
all nations; not that all men will be converted.4 The
words " and then " (Kal rore) are probably not meant
to indicate an immediate sequence of events, but merely

3 Matth. XXIV, 14: " Et prae- 48: "In quibus gentibus nondum
dicabitur hoc evangelium regni in est Ecclesia. oportet ut sit, non ut
universe orbe, in testimonium omni- omnes, qui ibi fuerint, credant.
bus gentibus: et tune (/cat Tore) Omnes enim gentes promissae sunt,
veniet consummatio." non omnes homines omnium gen-

4 Cfr. St. Augustine, Ep., 199, n. tium."

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 105

to mark the beginning (terminus a quo) of the period
which will end with the General Judgment. " What does
the phrase ' then it will come ' mean," says St. Augustine,
" except that it will not come before that time ? How long
after that time it will come, we do not know. The only
thing we know for certain is that it will not come sooner." 5

2. THE CONVERSION OF THE JEWS. — St. Paul
says : "I would not have you ignorant, brethren,
of this mysery, . . . that blindness in part has
happened in Israel, until the fulness of the gen
tiles should come in. And so all Israel should be
saved, as it is written : G ' There shall come out
of Sion he that shall deliver, and shall turn away
ungodliness from Jacob/ . . . For as you also in
times past did not believe God, but now have ob
tained mercy through their unbelief, so these also
now have not believed, for your mercy, that they
also may obtain mercy." 7

From this text it may with reasonable certainty be con
cluded :

(a) That the majority of nations, or at least the major
ity of the people of all nations (plenitudo gentium'), will
embrace Christianity before the end of the world;

6E/>., 197, n. 4: "' Tune veniet ' TrX^poyta TUV edvwv c&rc\0tf, Kal

quid cst, nisi ante non veniet? ovrws iras 'Iffpaij\ ffwdrifferai,

Quanta post venial, incertum nobis Ka6as ycypaTrrai' "H£ei e/c 2iw»>

est. Ante tamen non esse venturum, d pvoftevos Kal airoffrptyei affeftelas

dubitare utique non debemus." air& 'la/ccfyS. . . . "ttffirep yap Kal

6 Is. LIX. 20. VfjLels Trore TfTreiflifffare TW 0ew, vvv

7 Rom. XI, 25 sqq.: Ou yap 0e'Xw 8t ^XeTj^re Ty TOVTUV aireiQfia,
i'/uas ayvoeiv, d5eX0oi, TO fj.v<TT^piov offra>s Kal otroi vvv eTretd^arav rw
roOro, . . . ort Trwpaxris d,7r6 /ue'pous i/Ltcrepy eX^ei Iva Kal avrol ACTJ^W-

io6 THE END OF THE WORLD

(b) That, after the general conversion of the "gen
tiles," the Jews, too, will accept the Gospel.

Though these propositions by no means embody arti
cles of faith, it requires more than such antisemitic scold
ing as was indulged in by Luther to disprove them. The
Apostle expressly speaks of a " mystery," and ascribes the
final conversion of the Jews, not to the physical or mental
characteristics of the Semitic race, but to a special dis
pensation of God's " mercy." Luther overlooked both
these factors when he wrote : " A Jew, or a Jewish heart,
is as hard as wood, stone, or iron, as hard in fact as
the devil himself, and hence cannot be moved by any
means. . . . They are young imps condemned to Hell.
. . . Those who conclude from the eleventh chapter of
St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans that the Jews will all be
converted towards the end of the world, are foolish and
their opinion is groundless." 8

On the other hand, however, there is no reason to as
sume that the Jews will all be converted, or that the He
brew race will embrace the true faith in a body. Like
the " gentiles," the Jews will probably flock to the Church
in great numbers. " When the multitude of nations will
come in," says St. Jerome, " then this fig-tree, too, will
bear fruit, and all Israel will be saved." 9

The parable of the sheepfold (John X, 16) is some
times applied to the end of the world, though, we believe,
ineptly. In saying, " I have other sheep that are not
of this fold, them also must I bring, and they shall hear

8 S'dmtL Werke, Jena ed., Vol. schdpfen, als sollten alle Juden be-

VIII, p. 109: " Ein Jude oder jii- kehrt werden am Ende der Welt, ist

disch Hers ist so stock-stein-eisen- nichts."

teufelhart, dass mit keiner Weise zu » In Habac., Ill, 17: " Quum in-

bewegen ist. . . . Es sind junge traverit plenitudo gentium, tune

Teufel, sur H'dlle verdammt. . . . etiam haec ficus afferet fructus suos

Dass etliche aus der Epistel sum ft omnis Israel salvabitur."
Romer im n. Kapitel solchen Wahn

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 107

my voice, and there shall be one fold and one shepherd,"
our Lord simply meant that His Church was to embrace
all nations.

3. RETURN OF HENOCH AND ELIAS. — The be
lief that Elias and Henoch will return to herald
the second coming of our Lord and to convert the
Jews, was held by many Fathers.

a) So far as it regards Elias, this belief is based on
the prophecy of Malachias : " Behold I will send you
Elias the prophet, before the coming of the great and
dreadful day of the Lord. And he shall turn the heart
of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the chil
dren to their fathers: lest I come and strike the earth
with anathema." 10 " Elias the prophet " cannot be iden
tical with John the Baptist, as some have thought, because
the Septuagint expressly calls him " the Thesbite." 1X
Moreover, our Lord Himself clearly distinguishes be
tween the two, and ascribes to Elias precisely the role
that was attributed to him by His contemporaries.
Matth. XVII, II sq.: "But he answering, said to
them: Elias indeed shall come, and restore all things;
but I say to you that Elias is already come. . . .
Then the disciples understood that he had spoken to
them of John the Baptist."12 St. Augustine explains
this text as follows : " As there are two advents of the

10 Mai. IV, 5 sq.: " Ecce ego H 6

mitt am vobis Eliam prophetam, ante- 12 Matth. XVII, n sqq. :

quatn venial dies Domini magnus et 'HXe/as fJL^v <-pxercu KO.I O.TTO-

horribilis. Et convertet cor patrunt KaTaffTrjffei iravra' X'e'yw 5e vfj.lv

ad filios et cor filiorum ad patres ort 'HXe/as ij8r) ?i\0ev. . . . Tore

eorum, ne forte veniam et percutiam avvfjKav ol fjiaO^ral OTI irepl

terram anathemate." (Cfr. Eccles. 'Iwdvvov rov
XL VIII, 10).

io8 THE END OF THE WORLD

Judge, so there are two precursors. . . . He sent before
Him the first precursor and called him Elias, because
Elias was to take the same part in the second coming that
John had in the first." 13

From what we have said it further appears that the
phrase " dies Domini " does not mean the first coming of
Christ as the Messias, but His second coming as the Uni
versal Judge. The day of His Incarnation was a day of
mercy and blessing; the day of the Last Judgment will be
a " day of terror."

b) Concerning Henoch the argument is less
convincing.

Some theologians substitute Moses or Jeremias for
Henoch, but this procedure is rejected by the majority.14
The Bible says that "Henoch pleased God, and was
translated into paradise, that he may give [preach]
repentance to the nations." 15 The Septuagint is less
definite. It says: K<U /uercT£0i? (e« TrapaSao-ov is missing)
TrapaSayjua /xeravoias rats yeveats, — which might mean that
Henoch was set up as an example of repentance for his
contemporaries. St. Paul says : " By faith Henoch was
translated, that he should not see death." 16 In view of
this passage and of the " two witnesses " who accord
ing to the Apocalypse (XI, 3 sqq.) will appear as pre
cursors of our Lord when He returns for the Last Judg
ment, there has existed in the Church since the earliest
times a popular belief that Elias and Henoch will come

is Tract, in loa., VII, 5: "Quo- 14 Cfr. Suarez, De Myst. Vitae

modo duo adventus iudicis, ita duo Christi, disp. 55, sect. 3.

praecones. . . . Misit ante se pri- 15 Eccles. XLIV, 16.

mum praeconem, vocavit ilium Eli- i« Heb. XI, 5 : " Fide Henoch

am, quia hoc erit in secundo ad- translatus est. ne videret mor-

ventu Elias, quod in primo loannes." tern . . ."

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 109

back to preach penance before the end of the world.
However, this is not a dogmatically certain truth, as
claimed by Bellarmine.17

4. THE GREAT APOSTASY AND ANTICHRIST. —
The "great apostasy," /. e. a tremendous defection
among the faithful, is described partly as the
cause and partly as an effect of the appearance of
Antichrist. Both events may be reckoned among
the signs that are to precede the Last Judgment,
because it is certain that either before or after
the conversion of nations and of the Jewish
race there will be a great revolt, led by Antichrist,
which will reduce the number of the faithful.

a) That a great apostasy will occur before the
end of the world we know from St. Paul's Second
Epistle to the Thessalonians.

The congregation at Thessalonica had taken alarm at
a spurious letter purporting to come from the Apostle,
"as though the day of the Lord were near." To
prove the genuineness of the present epistle, and as a
precaution against forgery, St. Paul inserts the following
words in his own handwriting: " I, Paul, [send you] this
greeting with my own hand. That is the sign in every let
ter ; thus I write." 18 His references to the end of the
world appear rather obscure to us because he adverts to
certain things which he had told the Thessalonians by
word of mouth and of which we have no knowledge : " Do
you not remember that while I was still with you I used

17 De Romano Pontifice, III, 6. mea manu Pauli, quod est signum in
182 Thess. Ill, 17: " Salutatio, omni epistola. Ita scribo."

I io THE END OF THE WORLD

to tell you these things ? " 19 On one point, however, he
is quite clear, viz.: that the " day of the Lord " (^ f^ipa TOV
Kvpiov) will not come " unless the apostasy first befall, and
the man of lawlessness be revealed, the son of perdi
tion." 20 "Apostasy" (% aTroarama, discessio) in this
connection can scarcely mean a political revolution,
for the whole movement is described as " a mystery
of iniquity," 21 a satanic " seduction to evil for them that
are perishing, because they have not entertained the love
of the truth 22 unto their salvation. And therefore God
sendeth them a working of error, that they should believe
that lie,23 in order that all may be judged that have be
lieved the truth,24 but have acquiesced in unrighteous
ness." 25

It is true that some older exegetes understood this
text as foreshadowing, at least secondarily, a great po
litical upheaval, in particular the fall of the Roman Em
pire.28 But neither this catastrophe, nor the Protestant
Reformation (1517), nor the dissolution of the Holy Ro
man Empire (1806), have proved to be the discessio pre
dicted by the Apostle.

b) In the passage quoted above St. Paul men
tions another sign among those preceding the day
of the Lord, viz.: the revelation of the "man of

19 2 Thess. II, 5 : " Non retinetis 24 Ty d\f]9eta.

quod quum adhuc essem apud vos, 25 Tr] d5t/ct'a. (2 Thess. II, 9-11).

haec dicebam vobis? " 26 St. Thomas interprets the text

202 Thess. II, 3: " Ne quis vos as follows: "Discessio primo est a

seducat ullo vnodo: quoniam nisi fide, quia futurum erat ut fides a

venerit discessio primum, et revelatus toto mundo reciperetur. . . . Disces-

fuerit homo peccati, filius perdi- sio a Romano imperio debet intellegi,

tionis." non solum a temporali, sed a spiri-

21 Mysterium iniquitatis, fjivffT^' tuali, scil. a fide catholica Romanae

piov rijs dvojilcis- Ecclesiae." (Expositio in Omnes S.

22Tr]v dy&irriv rijs dXij^efas. Pauli Epistolas, cap. II, lect. i).

23 r<3

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT in

sin/' the "son of perdition," who is usually called
Antichrist.

a) The name Antichrist is not found in the Epistles of
St. Paul, but in I John II, 18, 22 ; IV, 3 ; 2 John VII.
St. John speaks of " antichrists " in the plural num
ber, but there can be no doubt that he believed in a
personal Antichrist. Cfr. i John II, 18: " Little
children, it is the last hour ; and as you have heard that
the Antichrist cometh, even now there are become many
antichrists : whereby we know that it is the last hour." 21
This personal Antichrist is to be preceded by messengers
who will prepare the way for him and inaugurate his
reign. Cfr. i John IV, 3 : " And every spirit that dis-
solveth Jesus, is not of God: and this is antichrist, of
whom you have heard that he cometh, and he is now
already in the world." The Greek text is more definite :
KOL TOVTO «m TO TOV avrixpiarov [the work of Antichrist],
o [not os] aKirjKOaTt ort epx^rai, Kal vvv eV ra> Kooyxw Ivrlv

r/fy. Evidently the Antichrist predicted by St. John is
not merely a pretender, but the incarnate antithesis
of our Divine Saviour, and therefore His deadly enemy.
Whether " Antichrist " is merely a collective name for
certain persons and tendencies, or whether it designates
one particular person, a human individual of flesh and
blood, cannot be concluded with certainty from the Johan-
nine text. St. Paul, however, is positive on this point.
He speaks of Antichrist as " the man of lawlessness," '
" the son of perdition," 20 who " shall oppose and exalt
himself against all that is called God " and " seat himself

27 i loa. II, 18: " Filioli, no-vis- antichristi ntulti facti stint, undo sci-

sima hora (fa^OLTf] wpct) est, et sicut mus quia novissima hora est."

audistis quia antichristus venit (&TI 2S 6 dvOpwrros rrjs

6 avrixpurTos gpxerai). Et nunc 20 6 viks rijs OTrwXe/as-

112 THE END OF THE WORLD

in God's sanctuary, giving himself out as God." 30 " And
then shall the lawless one 3a be revealed, whom the Lord
Jesus shall slay with the breath of his mouth and bring
to nought by the manifestation of his coming. But that
other's coming is through Satan's working [attended]
by every [kind of] feat and sign and lying wonder, and
by every seduction to evil for them that are perishing." 32
This graphic description cannot be applied to a mere per
sonification, but points to a concrete individual, and hence
we may safely reject the figurative interpretation
of " Antichrist," though it is not necessarily contrary to
Catholic teaching.

(3) It is difficult to say what St. John meant when he
wrote in the same Epistle : " And now you know what
keepeth him back (TO /care^ov), to the end that he may be
revealed in his own season. For the mystery of law
lessness is already at work; only let him who now re-
straineth (6 Kare'xwv) be taken out of the way, and then
shall the lawless one be revealed." 33 This obscure text
has been variously interpreted. Most exegetes see in it a
reference to some contemporaneous event. SS. Chrysos-
tom and Jerome regarded the Roman Empire as the re
straining influence (TO Karexov, 6 KaTe'xwv). Others held
that " the lawless one " is kept in check by the fact that
the Gospel has not yet been preached to all nations and
the Jewish people remain unconverted. Dr. Dollinger
identified " the man of lawlessness " with the Emperor
Nero, the Kar^v with Claudius, the " mystery of lawless
ness " with Nero's intrigues to usurp the throne, and the

so 2 Thess. II, 3 sqq. oidare, ds rb a.TroKa\v<f>0iij>at

si 6 avofjLos- avrbv iv T$ eavrov Kcupw. Td

82 2 Thess. II, 8-10. yap fivar^piov ^5ij tvepyeirai rijs

33 i John IV, 6-7. — Cfr. 2 Thess. dvontas' /j,6vov 6 Karex^v apri ews

II, 6 sq. : Kcti vvv rb Kare^ov e/c peffov

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 113

" sitting in the temple " 34 with the profanation and de
struction of the Jewish temple under Titus and Ves
pasian.35 Such historical parallels may be ingenious and
entertaining, but in appraising them at their true value
we must not overlook the fact that St. John speaks of
the second coming of Christ, and that " he who re
strains " this coming is most likely the devil, who is re
serving his forces for the end of the world, when he will
make his last and most formidable assault upon the hu
man race through Antichrist.

Some conceive Antichrist to be an incarnate devil or
a man possessed by Satan.36 The role assigned to him,
however, would seem to require an independent person.
Such appellations as " the man of lawlessness " and " the
son of perdition " sufficiently indicate that he will be a
man, not an incarnate devil or an energumen.

The belief that Antichrist will be the son of a Jewish
mother overshadowed by Satan 37 is pure conjecture.
That he will be born in Syria or Babylonia, rule the world
for three years from Jerusalem or Rome, and be deposed
at the second coming of our Lord, are more or less prob
able surmises that have nothing to do with the dogmatic
teaching of the Church.38

34 Cfr. Dan. IX, 27. 38 Cfr. Roncaglia, Lesioni Sacre

35 Dollinger, Christentum und intorno alia Venuta, Costumi e
Kirche, pp. 277 sqq. Monarchia dell' Anticristo, Rome

36 Cfr. St. Jerome, In Dan., VII, 1718; A. J. Maas, S.J., art. " Anti-
8: " Unus de hominibus, in quo christ," in Vol. I of the Catholic
satanas inhabitaturus sit corporali- Encyclopedia; J. H. Newman, " The
ter." Patristic Idea of Antichrist " (Dis-

37 Cfr. Lactantius, Instit., VI, 17: cussions and Arguments on Various
" Oritur ex Syria, malo spiritu ge- Subjects, pp. 44-108, new impres-
nituSj eversor et perditor generis sion, London 1907).

humani."

114 THE END OF THE WORLD

5. EXTRAORDINARY DISTURBANCES OF NA
TURE. — The second coming of Christ will be sud
den and terrifying. Matth. XXIV, 27 : "As the
lightning cometh out of the east, and appeareth
even into the west, so shall also the coming of the
Son of man be." 39 Luke XVII, 24: "As the
lightning that lighteneth from under heaven, shin-
eth unto the parts that are under heaven, so shall
the Son of man be in his day."40 Scripture
clearly indicates that this event will be preceded
by tremendous disturbances.

a) It is not easy to separate the eschatological part of
our Lord's teaching from his references to the destruc
tion of Jerusalem. However, there can hardly be a
doubt that the following passage refers entirely to the
end of the world : " And immediately after the tribula
tion of those days, the sun shall be darkened, and the moon
shall not give her light, and the stars shall fall from
heaven, and the powers of heaven shall be moved: and
then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven:
and then shall all tribes of the earth mourn : and they shall
see the Son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with
much power and majesty." 41 The tribulations here de
scribed are partly material (extraordinary perturbations
of nature) and partly spiritual (mental anguish suffered

39 Matth. XXIV, 27: " Sicut autem post tribulationem dierum it-
enim fulgur exit ab oriente, et paret lorum sol obscurabitur, et luna non
usque in occidentem: it a erit et ad- dabit lumen suum, et stellae cadent
ventus Filii hominis." de caelo. et virtutes caelorum comma-

40 Luc. XVII, 24: " Nam sicut "vebuntur: et tune parebit signutn
fulgur coruscans de sub caelo in Filii hominis in caelo : et tune plan-
ea, quae sub caelo sunt, fulget: ita gent omnes tribus terrae : et videbunt
erit Filius hominis in die sua." Filium hominis venientem in nubibus

41 Matth. XXIV, 29 sq. : " Statim caeli cum virtute multa et maiestate."

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 115

by men). It will not do to interpret the passage figura
tively. The Fathers and theologians accept our Lord's
prophecy in its literal sense. Quite naturally, He em
ployed the language of the people to whom He spoke, not
the terminology of science. We know that the (fixed)
stars cannot " fall from heaven." Hence the expression
" powers of heaven " must apply to the atmospheric belt
that surrounds the earth. We are forced to conclude that
the words of the Bible refer to the earth alone and
not to the planets and other astral bodies by which it is
surrounded. True St. Paul says: "Every creature
groaneth and travaileth in pain, even till now, and not only
it, but ourselves also, who have the first fruits of the
Spirit." 42 But nature, i. e. the material universe, expects
redemption and consummation only in so far as it groans
under the curse which deprived it of the blessings
of Paradise. In matter of fact God cursed the earth, not
its planets, nor the sun, nor the stars. Cfr. Gen. Ill,
17 sq.: "Cursed is the earth in thy work; . . . thorns
and thistles shall it bring forth to thee." 43

This simple and rational explanation is confirmed by
what may be regarded as the most important of all
Scriptural texts dealing with the consummation of the
world, viz., 2, Pet. Ill, 10: "But the day of the Lord
shall come as a thief, in which the heavens shall pass
away with great violence, and the elements shall be melted
with heat, and the earth and the works which are in it
shall be burnt up." 44 As the context shows, " heavens "

42 Rom. VIII, 22 sq. : " Scimus tributes germinabit tibi."
enim quod omnls creatura (irdo~n ^2 Pet. Ill, 10: " Adveniet
/CT/(rts) ingemiscit, et parturit usque autem dies Domini ut fur: in quo
odhuc. Non solum autem ilia, sed cadi magno impetu transient, ele
ct nos ipsi primitias spiritus ha- menta vero calore solventur, terra
bentes." autem et quae in ipsa sunt opera,

48 Gen. Ill, 17 sq. : " Maledicta exurentur."
terra in opere tuo: . . . spinas et

n6 THE END OF THE WORLD

here means the atmosphere surrounding the earth, for
the conflagration described by St. Peter is related to the
deluge, " whereby the world that then was, being over
flowed with water, perished ; " whereas " the heavens and
the earth, which now, by the same word are kept in store,
[are] reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and
perdition of ungodly men." 45 A comparison of the two
sentences shows that the " heaven " which will be de
stroyed by fire is the same that helped to bring on the del
uge. Hence it must be the atmosphere of our earth, of
which alone, furthermore, it can be said that it " shall pass
away with great violence." 46

b) How are we to conceive " the new heavens "
which Scripture predicts in connection with the " new
earth " that is to be after the Last Judgment ? 47 We shall
hardly go astray if we picture this transformation as a
restoration of the telluric atmosphere. The earth and
its surrounding atmosphere will not be totally destroyed,
but transformed into a paradise. It is hazardous to
deduce more than this from the cryptic intimations found
in various parts of the Bible. The analogy of faith
as well as the geocentric conception of the universe known
to have been held by the sacred writers favor the assump
tion that there is to be a re-created " heaven " (i. e.
atmosphere) as well as a restored earth. In what manner
the planets and stars are to be led to perfection, — we can
hardly assume that they will continue their revolutions
forever, — Revelation does not tell. The views held by
the Fathers and medieval Scholastics were based on an

452 Pet. Ill, 6-7: "Per quae 46 2 Pet. Ill, 10: " caeli magno

ille tune mundus aqua inundatus pe- impetu transient." — On the inter-

riit, caeli autem, qui nunc sunt, et pretation of 2 Pet. 6-10 see St.

terra eodem verbo repositi sunt, igni Augustine, De Civitate Dei, XX, 24,

reservati in diem iudicii et perdi- 47 Cfr. Is. LXV, 17; LXVI, 22}

tionis impiorum hominum." Apoc. XXI, i sq.; 2 Pet. Ill, 13.

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 117

erroneous notion of the universe and cannot be regarded
as an authentic exposition of the Catholic faith.

6. THE UNIVERSAL CONFLAGRATION. — The
"end of the world" will be brought about by a
great conflagration, which will destroy our planet
and its atmosphere.

a) It is uncertain whether this catastrophe will take
place before or after the General Judgment. The
former view is based on the assumption that the advent
of the Great Judge in the clouds of heaven 48 must coincide
with the universal conflagration, and that this conflagra
tion will not only cause the death of those who are still
alive, but likewise supply for them the place of Purgatory.
But this theory is open to many objections. In the first
place it is improbable that the Last Judgment will be
delayed until after the destruction and subsequent restora
tion of the earth, for how, in this hypothesis, would it
be possible for the living to " hasten unto the coming of
the Lord " ? Moreover, it seems proper that the great
conflagration should follow the Last Judgment and thus
actually mark the end of the world.

b) By what means God will bring about this terrible
conflagration we know not. It is neither probable nor
necessary to assume that the phenomenon will be strictly
miraculous. Even infidel scientists admit that there are a
number of purely natural causes which may at any mo
ment bring about the end of the world. If, for instance,
the earth were to collide with a comet accompanied by
a swarm of meteorites, or with some solar system other
than our own, or if one of the so-called fixed stars were to

48Matth. XXIV, 29; 2 Pet. III.io.

ii8 THE END OF THE WORLD

enter our planetary circle, the result would be destruction.
Curiously enough the signs predicted by our Lord and
by St. Peter as preceding or accompanying the end
of the world coincide with the perturbations which pres
ent-day scientists say would probably ensue if the earth
were hit by a comet. A well-known astronomer, Father
Charles Braun, S.J., has called attention to the existence of
comets which are ten thousand times larger than the
earth. If such a ponderous body were to strike the earth
at a speed of, say, six geographical miles per second, he
says, " the result would be the same as if a compact mass
of equal weight, shooting through space with the velocity
of a cannon ball, would collide with the earth. No human
being could live through such a catastrophe. . . . Millions
of luminous meteorites and meteors, which, as is well
known, always accompany comets, would penetrate the at
mosphere, and, by condensing, produce such enormous
masses of cosmic dust that the sun would lose its splendor
and glow with a reddish hue. Presently the head of
the comet would arrive and either strike the earth and,
by destroying its crust, cause the kernel of liquid fire to
burst forth, or, leaving behind a large part of its coma,
enter our atmosphere in the form of a frightful hur
ricane and start a general conflagration, which even
the minerals could hardly resist, and which, within
a few hours, would convert all organic structure into
ashes." 49

c) Will this universal conflagration annihilate the earth
with all its inhabitants or will some organic beings sur
vive? This question is inspired by curiosity rather than

49 Chs. Braun, S.J., Ueber Kosnto- und ihr kosmischer Ursprung," in

gonie vom Standpunkt christlicher the Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, 1886,

Wissenschaft, 3rd ed., pp. 383, 385, I, 290 sqq. ; J. Pohle, Die Sternen-

Miinster 1905. — On other pos- welten und ihre Bewohner, 6th ed.,

sibilities see Epping, " Die Meteorite pp. 243 sqq., Cologne 1910.

SIGNS OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT 119

dogmatic considerations. The Scholastics generally held
that no corruptible substances (corpora mixta = animals
and plants) shall find a place on the " new earth." 50 In
point of fact we have no positive knowledge concerning
this matter. The Schoolmen claimed no greater weight
for their theories than that due to the arguments
which they adduced. Their arguments in the present
case are anything but conclusive. Why should not God
in His omnipotence endow mixed bodies with the same in
destructibility or incorruptibility which is possessed by
simple bodies (corpora simplicia), or recreate the animals
and plants for the benefit of the race of transfigured men
that is to inhabit the new earth? St. Anselm seems to
have had some such idea in mind when he wrote : " The
earth which once harbored in its bosom the body of our
Lord, like a great garden which, having been wa
tered by the blood of saints, will wear an imperishable
garland of sweet-smelling flowers." 51 This view has
found favor with some modern theologians (Bautz and
Einig), but though it is quite fascinating, we do not adopt
it because it cannot be proved.

" Science," says Father Joseph Rickaby, " has some
times dreamt of a final condition of things in which the
machinery of the universe shall be completely run down,
the energies of nature so dislocated as no longer to fur
nish any potentiality of organic life, a uniform tempera
ture established everywhere, suns cooled, planetary revo
lutions stopped, — the realization in fact of the 6/xo{5
, or universal deadlock, which was the Greek

50 Among modern writers this guine est irrigata, odoriferis floribus,
view is held by Oswald (Eschd' rosis, violis immarcescibiliter frit
tologie, sth ed., Paderborn 1893). perpetuo decorata." (Cfr. Suarez,

51 " Terra, quae in gremio suo Comment, in S. TheoL, III, qu. 59,
Domini corpus fovit, tota erit ut art. 6, sect 3).

paradisus, et quia Sanctorum son-

120 THE END OF THE WORLD

notion of a mindless chaos. Things may come to this
final impasse, or they may not, science cannot tell. But
there remains God's promise to re-establish (avaKt<f>a\<u-
wo-ao-0ai, gather up under a new head) all things in
Christ.52 ' Hence it is said/ quotes St. Thomas : they
are the last words of his book : 53 "I saw a new heaven
and a new earth : 54 I will create new heavens and a new
earth; and the things that were before shall not be in
memory, neither shall they rise into thought; but ye
shall be glad and rejoice forever." 55 * So be it/ says
Aquinas." 56

READINGS : — J. B. Kraus, Die Apokatastasis der unfreien Natur
anf kath. Standpunkt, Ratisbon 1850. — Houchede, Die Lehre vom
Antichrist dargestellt nach der hi. Schrift und Tradition, Ratis
bon 1878. — A. Delattre, Le Second Avenement de Jesus-Christ,
Louvain 1891. — J. Rohm, Die protestantische Lehre vom Anti
christ, Hildesheim 1891. — Dornstetter, Das endzeitliche Got-
tesreich nach der Prophetic, Wurzburg 1896. — Thomas, Das
Weltende nach der Lehre des Glaubens und der Wissenschaft,
Minister 1900. — Joh. Rademacher, Der Weltuntergang, Munich
1909. — Jungmann, Tract, de Novissimis, Ratisbon 1885. — Billot,
Quaestiones de Novissimis, Rome 1903. — J. H. Newman, "The
Patristical Idea of Antichrist," in Discussions and Arguments on
Various Subjects, new impression, London 1907, pp. 44-108. —
A. J. Maas, S.J., art. " Antichrist," in the Catholic Encyclopedia,
Vol. I, pp. 559-562. — J. L. Ratton, Antichrist: An Historical
Review, London 1917. — Jowett, ''Excursus on the Man of Sin,"
in Epistles of St. Paul, London 1859.— P. Batiffol, art. " Apo-
catastasis," in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. I, pp. 599 sq.

52 Eph. I, 10. 55 Is. LXV, 17 sq.

53 The Summa contra Gentiles. 56 J. Rickaby, S.J., God and His
64 Apoc. XXI, i. Creatures, p. 419.

CHAPTER II

THE RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH

SECTION i

REALITY OF THE RESURRECTION

i. DEFINITION. — The Resurrection of the flesh
is one of the most important dogmas of the
Christian religion.

St. Paul says: "If there is no resurrection of the
dead, neither is Christ risen; and if Christ is not risen,
vain truly is our preaching, vain too your faith." : The
Bible employs " resurrection of the dead " 2 and " resur
rection of the flesh " 3 synonymously. The latter phrase
is the more significant because it emphasizes the body.
The soul, of course, does not " return " to life ; it is im
mortal.

The Resurrection of the flesh may be defined
as "a substantial conversion whereby a human
being, which has been resolved into its component
elements by death, is restored to its former con
dition."

ii Cor. XV, 13 sq.: "Si autem 2 Resurrectio mortuorum or de

resurrectio mortuorum non est: mortuis, dv&ffTaffis ruv

neque Christus resurrexit; si au- IK veKpuv.
tern Christus non resurrexit, inanis 3 Resurrectio carnis,

est ergo praedicatio nostra, inanis <rctp/c6s-
est et fides vestra."

121

122 THE END OF THE WORLD

The Resurrection is called a conversion (mutatio) to
distinguish it from creation (creatio ex nihilo), by which
an entirely new being comes into existence.

The change involved in the Resurrection is substantial
because it affects the substance of human nature, and not
merely its accidents. The subject is a corruptible being,
composed of elements which are separated by death and
thus admit of substantial destruction. Man as such is
destroyed, and of the two essential elements that compose
him, viz.: body and soul, the former gradually returns
to dust. Its resurrection is not a re-creation, but a mi
raculous reproduction (reproductio) with full identity of
subject.

2. HERETICAL ERRORS vs. THE DOGMATIC
TEACHING OF THE CHURCH. — The Resurrection
of the dead appeared foolish to the gentiles.4 It
was denied by the Sadducees,5 the Gnostics, the
Manichseans, and the medieval Albigenses and
Waldenses, and is still violently attacked by athe
ists, materialists, and rationalists. Against all
these the Catholic Church firmly upholds the
Resurrection of the body. The dogma is ex
pressly mentioned in the so-called Apostles' Creed,
in the Nicene and the Athanasian creeds, in the
symbol of the Eleventh Council of Toledo, and
in other ancient professions of faith. Origen's
teaching of an Apocatastasis of the dead6 was
condemned by the Council of Constantinople

4 Cfr. Acts XVII, 1 8. Sadducaei, gui dicunt non esse resur-

6 Cfr. Matth. XXII, 23: "... rectionem."

6 V. supra, pp. 67 sqq.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 123

(5 S3)-7 The Fourth Council of the Lateran spe
cifically defined that "all men will arise [from the
dead] with their own proper bodies/7 8

3. PROOF FROM SACRED SCRIPTURE. — The
Resurrection of the body is mentioned in both
the proto- and the deutero-canonical books of the
Old Testament. The former advert to it veiledly,
whereas the latter inculcate it with perfect clear
ness.

a) The proto-canomcal books contain two classes of
texts referring to the Resurrection. Some predict the
restoration of Israel under the figure of a general rising
of the dead; others point to the Resurrection of Christ
as a symbol of our own.

a) The prophet Osee puts these words into the mouths
of the Jewish exiles in Babylonia : " He will revive us
after two days : on the third day he will raise us up, and
we shall live in his sight." 9 Yahweh Himself promises
his chosen people through the same prophet : " I will
deliver them out of the hand of death. I will redeem
them from death. O death, I will be thy death ; O hell,
I will be thy bite." 10

Another argument may be deduced from the famous
vision of Ezechiel. The prophet saw how the dry bones
that lay scattered over the plain of the dead, at God's com
mand began to stir, took on sinews and flesh, and were

7 " Si quis dixerit, quod in fabu- duos dies: in die tertia suscitabit

losa restitutione futurae sunt solas nos, et vivemus in conspectu eius."

mentes nudae, anathema sit." 10 Os. XIII, 14: " De manu

(Denzinger, 9th ed., n. 200). mortis liberabo eost de morte re-

8 " Omnes cum suis propriis re- dimam eos: ero mors tua o mors,

surgent corporibus." (Denzinger- morsus tuus ero inferne." (Cfr. i

Bannwart, nth ed., n. 429). Cor. XV, 54 sq.)

» Os. VI, 3: " Vivificabit nos post

124 THE END OF THE WORLD

covered with skin. When they stood upright, and lived
and breathed, the Lord said to the prophet : " Son of man,
all these bones are the house of Israel. . . . Behold I
will open your graves, and will bring you out of your sep
ulchres, O my people, and will bring you into the land of
Israel." 11 Though this vision symbolizes the restora
tion of Israel, it would have been unintelligible to the
Jews had they not been familiar with belief in a resurrec
tion.12

/?) The texts of the second group refer to the
Resurrection of the Messias, which we Christians
rightly regard as a figure and pledge of our own.
Cfr. Ps. XV, 10: "Thou wilt not leave my soul
in the nether world,13 nor wilt thou give [permit]
thy holy one to see corruption." 14

b) A veritable locus classicus for the dogma of
the Resurrection is Job XIX, 23 sqq. : "Who
will grant me that my words may be written ? who
will grant me that they may be marked down in
a book with an iron pen and in a plate of lead, or
else be graven with an instrument in flint stone ?
For I know my Redeemer liveth, and in the last
day I shall rise out of the earth, and I shall be
clothed again with my skin, and in my flesh I shall
see my God, whom I myself shall see, and my eyes
shall behold, and not another : this my hope is laid

11 Ez. XXXVII, ii sq.: " Fili 12 Cfr. Tertullian, De Resurrec-

hominis, ossa haec universa domus tione Carnis, 30: " Non posset de

Israel est. . . . Ecce ego aperiam tu- ossibus figura componi, si non id

mulos vestros et educam vos de ipsum et ossibus eventurum esset."

sepulchris vestris, populus meus: 13 ^ls a.df}V, Hebrew, sheol.

et inducam vos in terram Israel." 1* Cfr. Acts II, 31 sq. ; XIII, 35.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 125

up in my bosom." 15 So clearly does this passage
express the dogma of the Resurrection that St.
Jerome says: "Job prophesied the resurrection
of the body in such plain terms that no man
has written of it more clearly or more certainly,
... no one [has treated this dogma] as openly
after Christ as Job did before Him." 10

The Hebrew text, it is true, differs slightly from the
Vulgate rendering, which is followed by our English
Bible. It runs something like this : " I know that my
Redeemer liveth, and he will in the end stand above the
dust. Then shall I be clothed with this skin, and in my
flesh I shall see God. Yea, I will see him for myself,
my eyes will see him, and not another: my reins con
sume themselves in my bosom." But, though the word
ing is different, the hope of a glorious Resurrection is
common to both versions. Where the Vulgate says, " Et
in novissimo die de terra resurrecturus sum," the He
brew text has : " He [i. e. the Redeemer] will stand
above the dust." Both passages affirm the fact of the
Resurrection, with this difference, that one mentions its
efficient, while the other speaks of its formal cause. To
interpret the whole passage as merely voicing Job's
confidence of regaining his health, will not do. For in
that assumption, as even Rabbi Rosenmiiller admits, there

15 Job XIX, 23 sqq. : " Quis mi/it conspecturi sunt, et non alius: re-

det, ut exarentur in libra stylo ferreo posita est haec spes mea in sinu

ft plitmbi lamina vel celte sculpan- nieo."

tur in silice? Scio enim quod Re- 16 Ep., 53,8: " lob resurrectionem
demptor meus vivit, et in novissimo corporum sic prophetat, ut nnllus de
die de terra surrecturus sum: et rur- ea vel manifcstius vel cautius scrip-
sum circumdabor pelle mea, et in serit, . . . nullus tarn aperte post
came mea videbo Deum meum, quern Christum, quam iste ante Christum."
visurus su)>i ego ipse, et oculi mei

126 THE END OF THE WORLD

would be no proportion between the majestic announce
ment with which the text opens, and the unimportant
fact which it records.17 The logical sequence of ideas
demands that Job meet the charges of his friends by ex
pressing his belief that the due proportion between guilt
and punishment will be restored in the world beyond, espe
cially since he himself had just closed his earthly account
in the sure expectation of death.18 " We must assume,"
says Rosenmiiller, " that his thoughts were directed to the
final resurrection of the body and the restoration of all
things." 19

c) The deutero-canonical books of the Old Tes
tament teach the doctrine of the Resurrection ex
plicitly.

Ecclesiasticus is not entirely conclusive because the
Greek text is badly corrupted and differs in many places
from the Latin Vulgate. Nevertheless, the praise of
Elias, who is expected to return at the end of the world,
may be quoted. The Greek text says : " Blessed are
they that saw thee [i. e. Elias at the end of the world]
and were honored in love ; for we too shall live." 20

That the post-exilic Jews firmly believed in the Resur
rection of the flesh is proved by the glorious martyrdom
of the seven brethren and their mother, recounted in 2
Mach. VII, 9 sqq. " Thou indeed, O most wicked man,"
says the second of the brothers to the cruel tyrant Anti-
ochus, " destroyest us out of this present life, but the King

17 Rosenmuller, Scholia in Li- 20 Ecclus. XLVIII, n, ed.
brum lob, i. h. I. Tischendorf, 1882: Ma/cdptot ol

18 lob XVII. Idovres <re /cat ol cv
18 Scholia in Librum lob, h. /. : KeKOffHiffJe&Ol' /cat yap

" Oportet eum de venture iudicio,
corporum resurrectione ultima et re-
rum omnium instauratione cogitasse."

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 127

of the world will raise us up, who die for his laws, in the
resurrection of eternal life." 21 And the fourth declares :
" It is better, being put to death by men, to look for hope
from God, to be raised up again by him : for, as to thee
thou shalt have no resurrection unto life." 22 The mother
exhorts them all to be steadfast. " The Creator of the
world," she says, ". . . will restore to you again in his
mercy both breath and life." 23 When Razias, one of
the ancients of Jerusalem, was put to death for his loyalty
to the Jewish religion, we are told that, " as he had yet
breath in him, being inflamed in mind, he arose, and while
his blood ran down with a great stream, and he was
grievously wounded, he ran through the crowd, and stand
ing upon a steep rock, when he was now almost without
blood, grasping his bowels with both hands, he cast them
upon the throng, calling upon the Lord of life and spirit
to restore these to him again : and so he departed this
life." 2*

d) In the New Testament we have the distinct
assurance of Christ and His Apostles that the
dead will rise again.

<*) Our Lord says: "Fear ye not them that

212 Mach. VII, 9: " Tu quidetn 2*2 Mach. XIV. 46: •'. . . et

scelestissime in praesenti -vita nos guum adhuc spiraret. accensus ani-

perdis: sed Rex mundi defunctos nos mo, surrexit : et quum sanguis eius

pro suis legibus in aeternae vitae magno fluxu deftueret. et grarissimis

resurrectione suscitabit." vulneribus esset saucius. cursu tur-

222 Mach. VII, 13: " Potius est bam pertransiit: et stans supra

ab hominibus morti datos spem ex- quondam petram praeruptam, et iam

pcctare a Deo, iterum ab ipso re- exsanguis effectus, complex-its in-

snscitandos: tibi enim resurrectio ad testina sua, iitrisque manibus proie-

vitam non erit." cit super turbos, invocans domina-

232 Mach. VII, 23: "mundi torem vitae ac spiritus, ut haec illi
Creator et spiritunt . . . vobis ite- iterum redderet: atque ita -vita de-
rum cum miseric&rdia reddet et functus est."
I'itam."

128 THE END OF THE WORLD

kill the body, and are not able to kill the soul : but
rather fear him that can destroy both soul and
body in hell." 25 He accuses the Sadducees, who
denied the Resurrection, of ignorance. "You
err," he says, "not knowing the scriptures, nor
the power of God." 26 When Martha before the
tomb of her brother exclaimed, "I know that he
shall rise again in the resurrection at the last
day," 27 Jesus said, "I am the resurrection and the
life : he that believeth in me, although he be dead,
shall live." 28 On another occasion He predicted
that He Himself would raise the dead to life:
"The hour cometh, wherein all that are in the
graves shall hear the voice of the Son of God;
and they that have done good things, shall come
forth unto the resurrection of life ; but they that
have done evil, unto the resurrection of judg
ment." 29 Those who eat of the "true bread of
heaven," i. e. His Body and Blood in the Holy
Eucharist, have our Lord's solemn promise that
He will "raise them up in the last day.'

30

25 Matth. X, 28: " Nolite timere 28 John XI, 25: Ego sum re-
eos, qui occidunt corpus, animam surrectio et -vita: qui credit in me,
autem non possunt occidere: sed po- etiam si mortuus fuerit, vivet."

tius timete eum, qui potest et ani- 2$ John V, 28 sq. : "... venit

mam et corpus perdere in gehen- hora, in qua omnes, qui in monu-

nam." mentis sunt, audient vocem Filii

26 Matth. XXII, 29: " Erratis Dei: et precedent qui bona fecerunt,
nescientes Scriptures, neque virtu- in resurrectionem vitae, qui vero
tent Dei." mala egerunt, in resurrectionem

27 John XI, 24: " Scio quia re- iudicii."

surget in resurrectione in novissimo so John VI, 40: " Ego resu-

die." scitabo eum in novissimo die."

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 129

/?) The Apostles testified both to the Resurrec
tion of Christ and to the General Resurrection of
the dead, with such power that the Sadducees
were "grieved." 31 St. Paul places the Resurrec
tion of the dead on the same level, as regards cer
tainty, with the Resurrection of our Lord:
"Now if Christ is preached as risen from the
dead, how say some among you that there is no
resurrection of the dead? If there is no resur
rection of the dead, neither is Christ risen;
and if Christ is not risen, vain truly is our preach
ing, vain too your faith." 32 Again he says : "If
the spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the
dead, dwell in you : he that raised up Jesus Christ
from the dead shall quicken also your mortal bod
ies, because of his spirit that dwelleth in you." 33
And: "Know you not that all we who are bap
tized in Christ Jesus are baptized in his death?
For we are buried together with him by bap
tism into death; that as Christ is risen from the
dead by the glory of the Father, so we also may
walk in newness of life." 34 The Apostle pro-

31 Acts IV, 2: " Dolentcs quod ergo praedicatio nostra; inanis est

docerent populum, et annuntiarent et fides vestra."

in lesu resurrectionem ex mortuis." 33 Rom. VIII, n: " Quod si

82 i Cor. XV, 12 sqq. : "Si au- spiritus eius, qui suscitavit lesum

tern Christus praedicatur quod re- a mortuis, habitat in vobis, qut

surrexit a mortuis, quomodo quidam suscitavit lesum Christum a mortuis,

dicunt in vobis, quoniam resurrectio vivificabit et mortalia corpora vestra,

mortuorum non est? Si autem propter inhdbitantem Spiritum eius

resurrectio mortuorum non est, in vobis."

neque Christus resurrexit ; si autem 34 Rom. VI, 3 sqq.: "An ignora-

Christus non resurrexit, inanis est tis quia quicunque baptizati sumus

130 THE END OF THE WORLD

claimed the doctrine of the Resurrection before
the Epicureans and the Stoics,35 and courage
ously upheld it in the presence of Felix, the gov
ernor,36 and King Agrippa.37 Hymeneus and
Philetus were publicly denounced by him as apos
tates for having taught that "the resurrection is
past already." 38

4. PROOF FROM TRADITION. — The Tradition
of the early Church agrees perfectly with the
teaching of the Bible. To construe a complete
Patristic argument for the Resurrection, "one
would have to transcribe almost all the writings
of the early Fathers," 39 for not only do they all
mention the dogma occasionally, but a number of
them (Athenagoras, Justin Martyr, Theophilus,
Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Gregory of
Nyssa, Ephraem, Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Am
brose, and others) have left special treatises on
the subject.

If we study the arguments of these Fathers we find that
they embody splendid proofs for the fitness of the Res
urrection. Thus Minucius Felix points to the analogy

in Christo lesu, in morte ipsius bap- 37 Acts XXVI, 8, 23.

tisati sumus? Consepulti enim 882 Tim. II, 18: ". . . resurrec-

sumus cum illo per baptismum in tionem esse iam factam." — The

mortem: ut quomodo Christus sur- Scriptural argument for the Resur-

rexit a mortuis per gloriam Patris, rection of the dead is more fully

ita et nos in novitate vitae ambu- developed by Fr. Schmid, Der

lemus." (Cfr. 2 Cor. IV, 14; Heb. Unsterblichkeitsglaube in der Bibel,

VI, 2). Brixen 1902.

38 Acts XVII, 1 8 sqq. 39 Thus Oswald, Eschatologie, p.

86 Acts XXIV, 15. 288.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 131

existing between revelation and nature. " The sun," he
says, " sinks down and rises, the stars pass away and
return, the flowers die and revive again, the shrubs re
sume their leaves after their wintry decay, seeds do not
flourish unless they are rotted. ... So we, too, must wait
for the springtime of the body.'5 40

The Fathers refute the objection that it is impossible for
the dead to return to life by pointing to the divine
omnipotence. Thus Cyril of Jerusalem says : " God
created us out of nothing; why should He not be able
to re-awaken that which is destroyed ? " 41 St. Irenaeus
emphasizes the dignity of the body as the temple of
the Holy Ghost and receptacle of the Eucharistic Christ.
" How can it be asserted," he asks, " that the flesh which
is nourished with the Body and Blood of our Lord shall
not partake of the life ? " 42 St. Clement of Rome declares
that the body must rise again in order to be rewarded
for the merits it has acquired here below.43 Tertullian
argues that if there were no resurrection of the body, the
devil would prove mightier than God and the divine econ
omy of grace would show a fatal defect.44

40 Octav ius, 34: "Sol demergi- dvaffrriffets TTJV ffdpica (JLOV ravrtjv
tur et nascitur. astra labuntur et re- rfyv dvarX^ffaffav ravra TTO.VTO..
deunt, Hores occidunt et revivi- 44 De Resurrcctione Carnis, c. 46:
scunt, post senium arbusta fronde- " Diabolus validior in hominem intel-
scunt, semina nonnisi corrupta re- legitur totum eum elidens, Deus in-
viviscunt. . . . E^vpectandunt nobis firmior rennntiabitur non totum re-
etiam corporis ver est." levans. Atqui et Apostolus suggerit,

41 Catech., 18. ubi delictum abundarerit, illic gra-

42 Adv. Haeres., IV, 18: " Quo- tiam abundasse." — Cfr. G. Scheurer,
modo dicunt, carnem non percipere Das Auferstehungsdogma der vorni-
vitam, qua cor pore Domini et son- zanischen Zeit, Wurzburg 1896; H.
guine alitur? " (Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Kihn, Patrologie, Vol. I, pp. 172
The Sacraments, Vol. II, pp. 71 sq.>. sqq., 289 sqq. ; Vol. II, pp. 160, 470

43 Ep. ad Corintlt., I, 25: Kal et passim, Paderborn 1904-1908.

SECTION 2

UNIVERSALITY OF THE RESURRECTION

I. The Catholic Church teaches that on
the Last Day all men shall rise in the flesh, —
the just to be rewarded with eternal life, the
wicked to be punished with eternal death.

Though the early creeds stress the fate of the
just,1 the Church has never permitted her chil
dren to doubt that the wicked also will rise in the
flesh. The so-called Athanasian Creed says:
"All men shall rise again with their bodies, and
shall give an account of their works ; and they that
have done good shall go into life everlasting, and
they that have done evil, into everlasting fire/' 2

The Fourth Council of the Lateran defines:
"All men shall rise again with their own bodies,
which they now have, to receive according to
their deeds, whether good or bad: the latter,
everlasting punishment with the devil, the former,
eternal glory with the Lord." 3 Hence it is an ar-

1 Cfr. the Symbolum Nicaenum as bus suis, etc." (Denzinger-Bann-

revised at Constantinople: " Et ex- wart, n. 40).

pecto resurrectionem mortuorum et 3 " Omnes cum suis propriis re-

vitam venturi saeculi." surgent corporibus, quae nunc ge-

2 " Omnes homines resurgere ha- stant, ut recipiant secundum opera

bent [». e. resurgent} cum corpori- sua, sive bona fuerint sive mala: illi

132

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 133

tide of faith that the souls of the damned as well
as those of the Elect will be reunited to their
bodies on the last day.

a) This teaching can be convincingly demon
strated from Holy Scripture. Cf r. Dan. XII, 2 :
"And many of those that sleep in the dust of the
earth shall awake : some unto life everlasting, and
others unto reproach, to see it always." 4 Our
Lord Himself says : "They that have done good
things shall come forth unto the resurrection of
life; but they that have done evil, unto the res
urrection of judgment." 5 St. John writes in the
Apocalypse: "And the dead were judged by
those things which were written in the books, ac
cording to their works. And the sea gave up
the dead that were in it, and death and hell gave
up their dead that were in them; and they were
judged every one according to their works. And
hell and death were cast into the pool of fire.
This is the second death. And whosoever was
not found written in the book of life, was cast
into the pool of fire." ° St. Paul, when brought

cum diabolo poenam perpetuam, et ivtae: qui vero mala egerunt in re-

isti cum Christo gloriam sempiter- surrectionem iudicii."

nam." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 429). 6 Apoc. XX, 12 sqq.: ". . . et

4 Dan. XII, 2: " Et multi de his, iudicati sunt mortui ex his, quae
qui dormiunt in terrae pulvere, evi- scripta erant in libris secundum opera
gilabunt: alii in vitam aeternam, et ipsorum. Et dedit mare mortuos, qui
alii in opprobrium ut rideant sem- in eo erant: et mors et infernus de-
per." derunt mortuos suos, qui in ipsis

5 loa. V, 29: "Precedent qui erant: et iudicatum est de singulis
bona fecerunt, in resurrectionem secundum opera ipsorum. Et in-

fernus et mors missi sunt in stag-

134 THE END OF THE WORLD

before Felix, the governor, openly professed his
belief in "a resurrection of the just and the un
just" 7

A difficulty has been raised in view of Ps. I, 5 :
" Therefore the wicked shall not rise again in judgment." 8
But this difficulty is apparent rather than real. The
Royal Psalmist does not except the wicked from the Gen
eral Resurrection ; he merely wishes to say that they will
be unable to stand judgment. This is clearly apparent
from the Hebrew text, which says : " The wicked shall
not stand, but be as dust which the wind driveth from
the face of the earth."

b) Though the Fathers devote more attention
to the Resurrection of the just, there can be no
reasonable doubt that they believed also in the
Resurrection of the wicked.

Clement of Rome admonishes the Corinthians : " Keep
the flesh pure and the seal undefiled, that we may obtain
eternal life, and let none of you say that this flesh
is not judged and does not rise again."9 His meaning
evidently is that impurity will be punished, as purity is
rewarded, in the flesh. Tertullian testifies to the early
belief in Christ's return to judge the wicked and the just,
rewarding the latter with eternal life and punishing the

num ignis." — On the " Book of impii in iudiclo."

Life " see Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Ac- 9 II Ep. ad Corinth., 8, 6-9, i :

tual and Habitual, pp. 192 sq. T^p-fjoaTe TTJV aapKa ayv^v /cat r^v

7 Acts XXIV, 15: "... resur- (rcfrpayida &criri\ov, iva TTJV al&viov
rectionem futuram iustorum et in- faijv dTroXd/Sui/iej' xal fji^j
iquorum (SlKaluv re KCU dSiKuv)-" Xe'yeraj TIS VJJLUV, '6n avTT) ^ ffap£

8 Ps. I, 5: "Idea non resurgent oil Kpiverai ovde

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 135

former with eternal fire, after they have all arisen from
the dead and resumed their bodies.10

c) Though reason cannot prove the necessity
of the Resurrection, it can show its congruity.

" It is against the nature of the soul," says St. Thomas,
" to be without the body. But nothing that is against na
ture can be lasting. Therefore the soul will not be for
ever without the body. Thus the immortality of the
soul seems to require the resurrection of the body."
However, this argument must not be strained. It does
not prove the impossibility of an eternal separation be
tween body and soul. If it did, a natural resurrection of
the flesh would have to be postulated for the pure state
of nature, and the dogma of the Resurrection could be
conclusively proved from philosophy. Some Catholic
writers have indeed asserted this to be so.12 Schee-
ben shatters their arguments by showing the essentially
supernatural character of the Resurrection.13 Man has
no natural claim to be restored to life after death, least
of all in a transfigured body, and to say that God might
allow the souls of the dead to live forever without their
bodies involves no contradiction, either against the order

wDe Praescript., 13: " Credimus petuo maneat [quid immortalis],

. . . Christum venturum cum clari- oportet earn corpori iterate coninn-

tate ad iudicandos sanctos in vitae gere, quod est resurgere." — Cfr.

aeternae et protnissorum caelestium Rickaby, God and His Creatures, p.

fructum, et ad profanos adiudicandos 403.

igni aeterno facto utrisque partis 12 Notably A. Feretti (Philosophia

resurrections cum restitutions car- Moralis, pp. 88 sqq., Rome 1887)

nis/> and Costa-Rossetti (Philosophia

uSumma contra Gentiles, IV, 79: Moralis, 2nd ed., pp. 41 sq., Inns-

" Est contra naturam animae absque bruck 1886).

corpore esse. Nihil autetn, quod est 13 Die Mysterien des Christentums,

contra naturam, potest esse perpetu- 3rd ed., pp. 591 sqq-» Freiburg

«»i. Non igitur perpetuo erit anima 1912.
absque corpore. Quum igitur per-

I36 THE END OF THE WORLD

of nature or against any divine attribute.14 The souls
of the Old Testament patriarchs have been living
without their bodies for several thousand years and will
continue in a disembodied state until the day of Judgment.
There is no reason for assuming that they could not
exist in this way forever.

A second argument for the congruity of the Resurrec
tion is derived from the attribute of divine justice and
may be tersely formulated as follows : " Reward and pun
ishment are due to men both in soul and body. But
in this life they cannot attain to the reward of final hap
piness, and sins often go unpunished : nay, here ' the
wicked live, and are comforted and set up with riches'
(Job XXI, 7). There must, then, be a second union of
soul and body, that man may be rewarded and punished
in both." 15

2. In conclusion we may add a few words concerning
the raising of Lazarus and other dead persons by Christ
during His earthly sojourn, and similar miracles per
formed by Saints. The persons thus miraculously raised
were restored to life only to die again, and now await
their final resurrection with the remainder of humanity.

Some doubt exists with regard to the saints who came
forth bodily from their graves at the death of our Sa
viour.18 There have been theologians who thought that
these privileged persons anticipated, as it were, the Gen
eral Resurrection and ascended to Heaven with Christ;
others (e. g. Theodoret and St. Augustine) hold the more

l4Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa 16 Cfr. Matth. XXVII, 52 sq.:

Theol., Supplement., qu. 75, art. 3. " Monumenta aperta sunt et multa

16 St. Thomas, Summa contra corpora sanctorum, qui dormierant,

Gentiles, IV, 79: " Necessarium surre.rerunt; et exeuntes de monu-

est, ponere iteratam ad corpus con- mentis post resurrectioncm eius,

iunctionem, ut homo in corpore et venerunt In sanctam ciritatem et

anima praemiari et puniri possit." apparuerunt multis."

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 137

probable opinion that they were revived only for a time
and died again. This latter theory is preferable to the
former because it agrees with the Catholic belief that the
bodily Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is an alto
gether unique privilege.17

17 See Pohle-Preuss, Mariology, pp. 105 sqq.

SECTION 3

NATURE OF THE RISEN BODY

The body that will be reunited to the soul at the
Resurrection will be identical with the one in
habited by the soul on earth.

i. PROOF FROM REVELATION. — The Eleventh
Council of Toledo says: "We believe that we
shall arise, clothed not in air or some other flesh,
but in the self -same [flesh] in which we [now]
live, exist, and move." l The so-called Creed of
Leo IX, which is still employed in the consecra
tion rite of bishops, contains this passage : "I be
lieve also in the true resurrection of the same
flesh which I now have." 2 The Fourth Council
of the Lateran defines : "All men will rise again
with their own bodies [the same] which they now
have." 3

a) The Biblical argument for this dogma is
based on the same texts that prove the Resur-

1 " Nee in aera vel qualibet alia gesto." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
came, ut quidam delirant, surrectu- 347)-

ros nos credimus, sed in ista, qua 3 " Omnes cum suis propriis re-

vivimus, consistimus et movemur." surgent corporibus, quae nunc ge-

( Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 287). stant." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.

2 " Credo etiam veram resurrec- 429).
tionem eiusdem carnis, quam nunc

138

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 139

rection, especially the vision of Ezechiel and the
passage from Job which we have quoted above.4

Where Sacred Scripture does not expressly assert the
identity of the risen body with that inhabited by the soul
before death, it takes this identity for granted. For a
man to rise again in a strange body would not be a
true resurrection. " We cannot speak of a resurrection,"
says St. Thomas, " unless the soul returns to the same
body, because resurrection signifies a new rising. To
rise and to fall belong to the same subject, . . . and
hence, if the soul did not resume the same body, there
would be no resurrection, but rather the assumption
of a new body." 5 St. Paul writes : " For this corrupti
ble [body] must needs put on incorruption, and this
mortal [body] immortality." 8 Consequently, it is one
and the same body which, having been corruptible and
mortal in this life, becomes incorruptible and immortal
after the Resurrection.

b) The Fathers conceived the Resurrection of
the flesh as a reawakening or restoration of the
body formerly inhabited by the soul, and re
jected the contrary teaching of the Origenists.
St. Jerome says : "As Christ arose in that body
which lay with us in the sacred sepulchre, so we,
on the day of judgment, shall arise in the same

4 V. supra, Sect. i. resumit, non dicitur resurrectio, sed

5 Summa Theol., Supplement., qu. tnagis novi corporis assumptio."
79, art. i: "Non enim resurrectio 61 Cor. XV, 53: " Oportet enim
did potest, nisi anima ad idem cor- corruptible hoc (rd (frQaprov
PUS redeat, quia resurrectio est ite- TOUTO) induere incorruptionem et
rata surrectio. Eiusdem autem est tnortale hoc (TO 0vrjT6v TOVTO) in-
surgere et cadere, . . . et ita, si duere immortalitatem."

non est idem corpus, quod anima

140 THE END OF THE WORLD

bodies by which we are surrounded and with
which we are buried/' 7 The Patristic teaching
that holy Communion is a pledge of the Resurrec
tion would be meaningless if the risen body were
not identical with the one the soul inhabits on
earth.

Tradition expressed itself practically in the solemn
burial rite of the Church, the liturgical prayers recited for
the dead, the respect shown to corpses, and especially the
veneration exhibited towards the bodies of saints and
their relics.8

2. SPECULATIVE DISCUSSION OF THE DOGMA.
— Speculative theology strives to understand the
dogma more fully and to answer some of the
questions that arise concerning the identity and
integrity of the risen body and its functions.

a) As regards the identity of the risen body,
it must be taken neither in too broad nor in too
limited a sense.

Durandus declared that identity of soul is sufficient to
constitute identity of person, and that the risen body may
be composed of matter entirely different from that which
constituted it during life. But would an entirely new
body be really and truly " my body " ? If my soul were to
inhabit an entirely new body, should I not, on the contrary,
be a different person, at least materially? The Church

7 Ep., 61: " Sicut surrexit Domi- 8 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Mariology,

nus in corpore, quod apud nos in pp. 153 sqq. — The argument from

sacro sepulcro conditum iacuit, ita the monuments of the early Church

et nos in ipsis corporibus, quibus is well developed by Katschthaler,

circumdamur et sepelimur, in die Eschatologia, pp. 448 sqq., Ratisbon

iudicii surrecturi sumus." 1888.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 141

declares that after the Resurrection man will not only
be of the same species as before, but identically the
same individual. It makes no difference whether this
identity is conceived in accordance with the hylomorphic
system of Aristotle and St. Thomas, or the modern atomic
theory, as long as the reality of matter is admitted.

Nor, again, must the identity of the risen body be con
ceived too narrowly. Of course, corporeal individuality is
not to be gauged by a mathematical standard. Infants
and old men will probably not arise exactly as they died,
but in a more perfect form. Moreover, we know that in
consequence of the process technically called metabolism,
the human body changes its material composition every
seven years or so. Hence there can be no absolute bodily
identity even in this life. Nor need the identity of the
risen with the earthly body be conceived as absolute.
" What does not bar numerical unity in a man while he
lives on uninterruptedly," says St. Thomas, " clearly can
be no bar to the identity of the risen man with the man
that was. In a man's body while he lives, there are not
always the same parts in respect of matter, but only in
respect of species. In respect of matter there is a flux
and reflux of parts : still that fact does not bar the man's
numerical unity from the beginning to the end of his
life." 9

It has been objected that, as the same matter enters suc
cessively into the composition of different men, many indi
viduals, especially savages addicted to anthropophagy, will
have to fight for their bodies at the Resurrection. But

9 Summa contra Gentiles, IV, 81: secundum materiam, sed solum se-

" Quod non itnpedit unitatem secun- cundum speciem. Secundum vero

dum numerum in homing, dum c<?n- materiam paries fluunt et refluunt,

tinue Twit, manifcstum est quod non nee propter hoc impeditur, quin homo

potcst impcdire unitatem resurgentis. sit unus numero a principio vitae

In corpore autem hominis, qitamdiu usque in finem."
vivit, non semper sunt eaedem partes

142 THE END OF THE WORLD

this objection is unworthy of serious consideration. God
in His omnipotence and wisdom can surely find ways and
means of restoring to every man his own body.10

b) The integrity of the risen body offers a real
difficulty, owing to the fact that many men are
mutilated before they die, while others (monstra)
never enjoy the possession of a normal physique.

St. Augustine says on this subject: " As the members
appertain to the integrity of human nature, they shall
all be restored together; for they who were either blind
from birth, or who lost their sight on account of some dis
ease, the lame, the maimed, and the paralyzed, shall rise
again with an entire and perfect body." " The same
holy Doctor expresses the expectation that " whatever
old age or disease has wasted in the body . . . shall be re
paired by the divine power of Christ," 12 and that the
body will be raised, not in an immature or decrepit con
dition, but as it appeared in the prime of life.18 How
ever, these are mere conjectures. We have no positive
knowledge whatever on the subject.

Certain theologians hold that the bodies of the risen
will be either asexual or all of the male gender. This
opinion is untenable for the reason that the distinction of
sex appertains both to the integrity and the identity of the
individual 14 and also because our Lord seems to take the

10 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa con- omnino manci et quibusvis tnembrts
tra Gentiles, IV, 81. debiles integro ac perfecto cor pore

11 Enchiridion, c. 89: "Quo- resurgent." This teaching was em-
niam membra ad veritatem humanae bodied in the Catechism of the
naturae pertinent, simul restituentur Council of Trent, P. I, c. 12, n. 9.
omnia. Qui enim vel ab ipso ortu 12 De Civitate Dei, XXII, 19.
oculis capti sunt vel ob aliquem inor- 13 Ibid., XXII, 16.

bum lumina amiserunt, claudi atque 1* Cfr. Gen. I, 27, 31.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 143

continued existence of sex for granted when He says:
" In the resurrection they shall neither marry nor be mar
ried." 1B In Eph. IV, 13: "Until we all meet and at
tain to the unity of faith, and knowledge of the Son of
God, even to a perfect man, to the measure of the full
stature of Christ," 16 the context shows that the Apostle
speaks of that perfect manhood which the soul is destined
to attain in the life beyond. He does not mean, as St.
Thomas notes, that when the risen go forth to meet
Christ, they shall all be of the male sex, but merely desires
to foreshadow the perfection and strength of the Church,
which shall be like that of a full-grown man.17

c) Of the bodily functions all those that per
tain to the vegetative life will cease in the next
world.

Nutrition and propagation are incompatible with the
status termini. Moreover, Christ Himself expressly re
pudiated the idea of a Mohammedan paradise. Cfr.
Matth. XXII, 30 : " In the resurrection they shall neither
marry nor be married, but shall be as the angels of God in
heaven," 18 that is to say, though the distinction of sex
remains, its functions will cease.

Scripture often likens Heaven to a banquet, at which
all men will sit down to feast with the Patriarchs. This
is a mere allegory, designed to illustrate the happiness
of the Elect. St. Paul says: "Food is for the belly,

15 Matth. XXII, 30: "In resur- ram aetatis plenitudinis Christi."
rectione enim neque nubent, neque 17 Summa contra Gentiles, IV, 88.
nubentur . . ." 18 Matth. XXII, 30: "In resur-

16 Eph. IV, 13: " Donee occur- rectione enim neque nubent
ramus omnes in unitatem fidei, et (ya.fJLOVffiv'), neque nubentur (ya.iJ.L-
agnitionis Filii Dei in virum perfec- fovrcu) : sed erunt sicut angell Dei
turn (els avdpa reXetov) in tnensu- in caelo."

144 THE END OF THE WORLD

and the belly for food; still, God will end both the one
and the other." 19 This cannot mean that the organs of
digestion and assimilation will be destroyed, for they be
long to the integrity of the body, — but that they will no
longer exercise their functions.

As regards the senses, the eyes and ears will no doubt
continue to exercise their functions, the former by en
joying the sight of the God-man, the Blessed Virgin Mary,
and the Saints, the latter by, listening to the conversation
of the Blessed and drinking in their paeans of praise and
exultation.20

What some theologians say concerning delicious odors,
essences, etc., enjoyed by the Elect is pure speculation
with no basis in fact.

3. THE FOUR TRANSCENDENT ENDOWMENTS
OR QUALITIES OF THE RISEN BODIES OF THE
SAINTS. — In addition to the natural characteris
tics of identity and integrity common to all risen
bodies, the glorified bodies of the Elect will enjoy
four supernatural qualities, viz.: impassibility,
brightness, agility, and subtility.

a) Impassibility (impassibilitas, a^Oapma") puts
the bodies of the Elect beyond the reach of death,
pain, and discomfort, i Cor. XV, 53: 'This
mortal body must needs put on incorruption." 21
Apoc. XXI, 4: "God shall wipe away every tear
from their eyes, and death shall be no more,

19 i Cor. VI, 13: " Esca ventri 21 i Cor. XV, 53: del yap TO
et venter escis, Deus autem et hunc (frOaprbv TOVTO evdvffacrdai d'pdap
et has destruet." oiav-

20 Cfr. Lessius, De Sum-mo Bono,
III, n. 100.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 145

neither shall mourning or wailing or pain be any
more, because the first things are passed away.

22

The term d</>0a/o(7ta, as employed by St. Paul, signifies
something more than " incorruption." The bodies of the
wicked, too, are after a fashion " incorruptible," but they
are by no means impassible. Impassibility is a peculiar
ity of the glorified body. Whether it is a positive quality
imparted to the soul by God, or results from the expulsion
of the active and passive factors responsible for pain and
suffering, we are unable to say. All that we know for
certain is that the bodies of the Saints will be incapable of
suffering. St. Thomas ascribes this supernatural im
passibility to the complete and perfect dominion exercised
by the soul over the body, whereby the latter is effec
tively protected against all harmful influences both from
within and without.23

b) The second quality of the glorified body
is a certain brightness (claritas, &>'&) that will
cause the just, in the words of our Saviour Him
self, to "shine as the sun." 24

This prerogative was foreshadowed in the transfigura
tion of Christ on Mount Thabor. " Our conversation/'
says St. Paul, " is in heaven, from whence also we look
for the Saviour, our Lord Jesus Christ, who will trans
form the body of our lowliness, that it may be one with
the body of his glory, by the force of that power whereby

22Apoc. XXI, 4: /ecu e£a\efy'ei 23 Summa Theol, Supplement., qu.

6 Oebs trdv daKpvov airb ruv 82, art. i.

6(f>6a\tJiu>v avruv, /ecu 6 Odvaros 24 Matth. XIII, 43: " Tune iusti

OVK ecrrat ert, oure irevOos cure fulgebunt sicut sol in regno Patris

Kpavyij ovre TTOVOS OVK carat %TI> eorum."
<5rt ra Trpwra

146 THE END OF THE WORLD

he is able to subject all things to himself." 25 Elsewhere
the Apostle intimates that the body will be transfigured
in proportion to the light of glory which illumines the
soul and enables it to behold the divine essence. Cfr. i
Cor. XV, 40 sq. : " The glory of the heavenly is differ
ent from that of the earthly. There is the glory of the
sun, and the glory of the moon, and the glory of the stars ;
for star differeth from star in glory. And so it is with
the resurrection of the dead."26 "Thus," explains St.
Thomas, " the glory of the soul shall be perceptible in
the glorified body as the color of a body enclosed in a glass
receptacle is visible through the glass." 27 As the wounds
of our Divine Saviour do not disfigure His glorified
body, but shine forth with indescribable radiance, so, we
may assume, the scars of the blessed martyrs, far from
marring, will rather enhance the beauty and glory of their
transfigured bodies.28

c) The third quality of the glorified body is
a certain agility (agilitas, SiW/us), by which, un
der the influence of the spirit, now no longer re
strained, the body is freed from its innate clumsi
ness and moves with the utmost facility in what
ever direction it is drawn by the soul.

• 25 Phil. Ill, 20 sq. : " Nostra au- claritas lunae, et alia claritas stella-

tem conversatio in caelis est: unde rum. Stella enim a Stella differt in

etiam Salvatorem expectamus Domi- claritate: sic et resurrectio mortuo-

num nostrum lesum Christum, qui rum."

reformabit corpus humilitatis nostrae, 27 Summa Theol, Supplement., qu.

configuratum corpori claritatis suae, 85, art. i : " Et ita in corpore glo-

secundum operationem, qua etiam rioso cognoscetur gloria animae, sic-

possit subiicere sibi omnia." ut in vitro cognoscitur color corpo-

26 i Cor. XV, 40 sq.: ". . . alia ris, quod continetur in vase vitreo."

quidem caelestium gloria, alia autem 28 CfV. St. Thomas, Supplement.,

terrestrium: alia claritas solis, alia qu. 82, art. i, ad 5.

RESURRECTION OF THE FLESH 147

The body of our Lord after the Resurrection was no
longer subject to the limitations of space. Similarly the
transfigured bodies of the Saints will be able to move
from place to place, from planet to planet, from star to
star, with the utmost ease and celerity. St. Thomas as
cribes this ability to the fact that in the glorified body the
soul is free to exercise its functions as the substantial form
and motive power (vis matrix)™

Can the Blessed move from place to place in a time
less moment, that is, without passing through the inter
vening space? This purely philosophical question is an
swered negatively by the Angelic Doctor. " The glori
fied body," he says, " moves in time, but imperceptibly be
cause of its quickness." 30 Suarez 31 takes the opposite
view and supports it with certain utterances of the Fa
thers. The metaphysical possibility of such unhampered
motion depends on the nature of time and space.

d) The fourth and last quality of the trans
figured body is subtility (subtilitas s. spirituali-
tas) . This property does not imply that the glori
fied body (<™/Aa TTVCU/MITIKOV) is imperceptible to the
senses, or that it is transformed into spirit.32 The
body merely enters into the full possession of
grace and participates in the higher life of the
soul to such an extent that it may be said to be al
most spiritualized.

The soul is filled with the divine pneuma, which, as
the principle of supernatural life, assumes into itself the

29 Op dt.r qu. 84, art. i. 31 De Myst, Vitae Christi, disp.

80 Ibid. : " Corpus gloriosum 48, sect. 4.

movetur in tempore, sed impercepti- 32 Cfr. St. Thomas, Suinma Theol.,

biliter propter brevitatem." Supplement., qu. 83, art. 6.

148 THE END OF THE WORLD

life of the body and raises it to its own level. The
soul is no longer subject to death and suffering and no
longer depends on material objects for the processes of
nourishment and acquiring knowledge. The body be
comes absolutely subject to the spirit, and the former con
flict between the two is at an end.

It is a controverted question whether the transfigured
bodies of the Blessed, by virtue of this supernatural gift
of subtility, can penetrate one another, i. e. occupy the
same space. Most authors hold that they are endowed
with mechanical compenetrabilitas, i. e. the capability of
mutual penetration. That this is metaphysically possible
we know from the fact that Christ after the Resurrec
tion passed through the walls of the sepulchre and the
closed doors of the council chamber without let or hind
rance. St. Thomas ascribes this prerogative to a special
act of divine omnipotence,33 whereas Suarez 34 thinks it
may be explained as a natural effect of the spirituality of
the transfigured body.

READINGS : — E. Ramers, Des Origenes Lehre von der Auferste-
hung des Fleisches, Treves 1851. — M. Seisenberger, Die Lehre
von der Auferstehung des Fleisches, Ratisbon 1867. — J. Bautz,
Die Lehre vom Auferstehungsleibe nach ihrer positiven und
spekulativen Seite, Mayence 1877.— G. Scheurer, Das Aufer-
stehungsdogma der vornizdnischen Zeit, Wiirzburg 1896. — A.
Brinquant, La Resurrection de la Chair et les Qualit&s du Corps
des klus, Paris 1899.— * F. Schmid, Der Unsterblichkeits- und
Auferstehung sglaube in der Bibel, Brixen 1902. — Chadouard, La
\Philosophie du Dogme de la Resurrection de la Chair au ze
Siecle, Paris 1905.— A. J. Maas, S. J., art. " Resurrection," in the
Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, pp. 792 sq.

33 Cfr. St. Thomas, op. cit., qu. pore esse ex operatione virtutis di-

83, art. 2: "Corpus gloriosum ra- vinae."

tione suae subtilitatis non habebit, 34 De Myst. Vitae Christi, disp.

quod possit esse simul cum alio cor- 48, sect. 5, n. 16.
pore, sed poterit simul cum alio co-

CHAPTER III

THE LAST JUDGMENT

SECTION I
REALITY OF THE LAST JUDGMENT

i. THE DOGMA IN SACRED SCRIPTURE AND
TRADITION. — Aside from the great conflagra
tion which is to destroy the earth, the General
Judgment (indicium universale) will be the last
important event in the history of the human race.
This event is so intimately connected with the
Resurrection of the dead, that no room remains
for a terrestrial reign of Christ and His saints
(millennium) which, the Chiliasts hold, is to
precede the end of the world. That there
will be a General Judgment, held by Jesus Christ
in Person, has always been an article of faith in
the Catholic Church, as may be seen from the
ancient creeds. The Apostles' Creed expresses
this belief in the words:. "From whence He
[Christ] shall come, to judge the living and the
dead." "

a) Few truths are more clearly and insistently
149

150 THE END OF THE WORLD

proclaimed in Scripture than this. The New
Testament in particular speaks time and again of
the "second coming" of Christ as the Universal
Judge, in opposition to His "first coming" as the
Redeemer. This "second coming" is commonly
called parousia, i. e. advent ; l sometimes "epi
phany" (eVi^aveia), {. e. apparition,2 and sometimes
"apocalypse" (airoKaAu^w), i. e. revelation.3 Our
Lord Himself predicted the General Judgment,4
and the Apostles echoed His teaching. We have
already quoted St. Paul. St. James says: "Be
patient, therefore, brethren, until the coming of
the Lord. . . . Grudge not one against another,
that you may not be judged. Behold, the Judge
standeth before the door." 5 St. Peter writes :
"The day of the Lord shall come as a thief; . . .
what manner of people ought you to be in holy
conversation and godliness, looking for and hast
ing unto the coming of the day of the Lord, by
which the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved,
and the elements shall melt with the burning
heat." 6

b) Though the writings of the Apostolic Fa-

1 i Cor. XV, 23; i Thess. II, 19, Ecce \udex ante ianuam assistit."
and elsewhere. 62 Pet. Ill, 10 sqq.: " Adveniet

22 Thess. II, 8; i Tim. VI, 14; 2 autem dies Domini ut fur: . . .

Tim. IV, i; Tit. II, 13. quales oportet vos esse in sanctis

82 Thess. I, 7; i Pet. IV, 13. conversationibus et pietatibus, ex-

4 Matth. XXIV, 27 sqq.; XXV, 31 pectantes et properantes in adventum
sqq. diei Domini, per quern caeli ardentes

5 lac. V, 7 sqq. : " Patientes igitur solventur, et elementa ignis ardore
estate fratres usque ad adventum tabescent?" Cfr. Apoc. XX, u
Domini. . . . Nolite ingemlscere fro- sqq. ; additional scriptural texts in-
tres in alterutrum, ut non iudicemini. fra, No. 2.

THE LAST JUDGMENT 151

thers are tinged with Chiliastic views,7 the dogma
of the Last Judgment has a solid Patristical
foundation. Clement of Rome refers to Christ as
"judge of the living and the dead/' 8 In the so-
called Epistle of Barnabas we read that the Son
of God is "destined to judge the living and the
dead."9 Tertullian writes: "Christ will re
turn on the clouds of heaven, the same as He
arose." 10

2. CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING THE GEN
ERAL JUDGMENT. — Sacred Scripture expressly
mentions certain features of the General Judg
ment.

a) Our Lord Jesus Christ will conduct the trial
in person. John V, 22 : " The Father . . . hath given
all judgment to the Son." n He will be assisted by
the angels. Matth. XXIV, 31 : " [The Son of man]
shall send his angels with a trumpet and a great voice,
and they shall gather together his elect from the four
winds, from the farthest parts of the heavens to the
utmost bounds of them." 12

b) The site of the Last Judgment, according to the
prophet Joel, will be the valley of Josaphat.13 St. Paul

7 V, infra. Sect. 2. 12 Matth. XXIV, 31: " Et mit-

8 Kpirov $<i)VT<av Kal vcKpwv. tet angelos suos cum tuba et voce
(Epist. ad Corinth., I, 2, i). magna, et congregabunt elect os eius a

8 fji4\\uv KpLveiv fwj/Tas Kal quattuor ventis, a summis caelorum

veKpovs- (Ep. Barnab., VII, i). usque ad terminos eorum." (Cfr.

10 Adv. Prax., c. 30: " Christ us i Cor. XV, 52; i Thess. IV, 15).
venturus est rursus super nubes cae- 13 Joel III, 2: " Congregabo
li, qualis et ascendit." omnes gentes et deducam eas in

11 loa. V, 22: "Pater . . . omne valient losaphat." — Cath. Encycl.,
indicium dedit Filio." Vol. VIII, p. 503

152 THE END OF THE WORLD

says the newly risen shall be "taken up in the clouds
to meet Christ ; " 14 whence some commentators infer
that the judgment will be held in the air.

c) Immediately before the second coming of Christ,
" the sign of the Son of man " will appear in the heav
ens.15 What may this sign be? Some Fathers think it
is the cross on which our Saviour died, others, that a
miraculous light will appear in the air. Neither inter
pretation is certain.

d) Finally our Lord Himself will " come in the clouds
of heaven with much power and majesty." 16

e) All men without exception, the just as well as the
wicked, will appear before His judgment seat. Matth.
XXV, 32: "All nations shall be gathered together be
fore him, and he shall separate them one from another,
as the shepherd separateth the sheep from the goats." 17
Rom. XIV, 10 : " We shall all stand before the judgment
seat of Christ." 18

Baptized infants who have done neither good nor evil
will also appear, not, however, to be judged, but to behold
the glory of the Judge.19 The unbaptized will probably
appear in order to be convinced of the justice of God in
denying them the beatific vision.20

As for the pure spirits, the angels and demons, though
they are already judged, will participate in the Gen
eral Judgment to receive the accidental rewards which

14 On the Eschatology of St. gregabuntur ante eum omnes gentes,
Paul see C. Lattey, S.J., in his ap- et separabit eos ab invicem, sicut
pendix to Thessalonians in the pastor segregat oves ab hoedis."
Westminster Version, pp. 17 sqq. 18 Rom. XIV, 10: " Omnes enim

15 Matth. XXIV, 30: " Et tune stabimus ante tribunal Christi."
parebit signum Filii hominis in 19 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,
caelo." Supplement., qu. 89, art. 5, ad 3 :

16 Ibid. : " Videbunt Fihum ho- ". . . non ut iudicentur, sed ut vi-
tninis venientem in nubibus caeli cum deant gloriam iudicis."

virtute multa et maiestate." 20 Suarez.

17 Matth. XXV, 32: " Et con-

THE LAST JUDGMENT 153

they have merited or the punishments they have incurred
by unduly influencing the course of human events.21

f) The twelve Apostles will sit in judgment over
the tribes of Israel.22 It is probable that the Blessed
Virgin Mary, the prophets of the Old Testament, John
the Baptist, and other saints will also assist the Great
Judge.23

g) The judgment itself will embrace all the works of
man, good and evil, thoughts, words, and deeds.24 This
is necessary to manifest the mysterious dispensations of
Providence and the justice and glory of the Universal
Judge.25 It is prudent to hold with St. Thomas 26 and the
majority of Catholic theologians that the forgiven secret
sins of the just will also be revealed on the Last Day, in
order that the judgment may be made complete and the
justice and mercy of God glorified.

h) With regard to the form of the Last Judgment ob
serve that such expressions as the separation of the goats
from the sheep, the just standing on the right and the
wicked on the left hand of the Judge, etc.,27 may be alle
gorical. Their object probably is to show that the con
duct and deserts of every man will become clearly appar
ent to his own conscience and to the whole world. To
interpret these texts literally would hardly do, for the rea
son that, as St. Thomas points out,28 such a process car
ried out literally would require an incalculable length of

2iCfr. i Cor. VI, 3; 2 Pet. II, 23 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa

4; Jude 6. (St. Thomas, Summa Theol., Supplement., qu. 99, art. 2.

Theol., Supplement., qu. 89, art. 8). 24 Cfr. Matth. XII, 36; i Cor. IV,

22Matth. XIX, 28: ". . . vos 5.

gut secuti estis me, in regeneratione 25 Cfr. Suarez, De Myst. Vitae

quum sederit Filius hominis in sede Christi, disp. 53, sect. i.

maiestatis suae, sedebitis et vos su- 26 Supplement., qu. 87, art. 2.

per sedes duodecim, iudicantes duo- 27 Cfr. Matth. XXV, 32 sqq.

decim tribus Israel." Cfr. i Cor. 28 Supplement., qu. 88, art. 2:

VI, 2: "An nescitis quoniam " Inaestimabilis magnitude temporis

sancti de hoc mundo iudicabuntf" ad hoc exigeretur."

154 THE END OF THE WORLD

time. Most probably the whole procedure will be over in
a few minutes. By divine illumination every man will
instantly comprehend the state of his own soul and that of
his fellow-creatures. " It is likely," says St. Basil, " that
by an inexpressible power, every deed we have done will
be made manifest to us in a single moment, as if it were
engraved on a tablet." 29 The words of the sentence,
however, " Come ye blessed," etc., will in all probability be
actually spoken by Christ.

2Qln loa., I, 18.

SECTION 2

CHILIASM, OR MILLENARIANISM

i. CHILIASM IN ITS Two FORMS. — There are
two forms of Chiliasm or Millenarianism. The
exaggerated form is heretical, while the more
moderate is simply erroneous.

a) The heretical form of Chiliasm may be traced partly
to the Jewish expectation of a temporal Messias x and
partly to the apocryphal writings of the Old Testament,
which abound in fables.2 The Chiliasts of this school con
ceived the millennium as a period of unbridled sensual in
dulgence. Eusebius the church-historian says of Cerin-
thus, a Gnostic heretic who flourished towards the end of
the first century : " He held that at some time in the fu
ture Christ would reign on earth ; and as he was addicted
to the pleasures of the flesh, he imagined that the reign of
God would consist of such things." 3 This error was
shared by the ancient Ebionites and Apollinarianists and,
in a somewhat more respectable form, still persists among
the Mormons and Irvingites.

b) Moderate Chiliasm had a number of adherents
among Patristic writers, notably Papias, Justin Martyr,
Irenaeus, Tertullian, Nepos, Commodian, Victorinus of
Pettau, and Lactantius. Its favorite text was Apoc.

1 Cfr. Is. IX, 6; LXVI, 18; Joel 2 Cfr. Funk, Patres

III, 17; Matth. XX, 20 sq.; Acts I, II, 276 sqq.
6. zHist. Eccles., Ill, 28: " Haec

155

156 THE END OF THE WORLD

XX, i sqq. Papias believed that the Resurrection of the
flesh would be followed by a glorious reign of Christ, in
which the Saints would enjoy a superabundance of
earthly pleasures for a thousand years. These pleasures,
however, were to be spiritual, or at least morally licit.
In developing this idea its champions parted ways.
Some expected the millennium between the General Judg
ment and the Resurrection of the dead, while others
believed it would occur after the General Resurrection,
immediately before the assumption of the just into
Heaven. A third, still more moderate group of Millena-
rianists, which is not yet extinct, contents itself with as
serting that an era of universal peace and tranquillity will
precede the second coming of Christ, to be suddenly inter
rupted by the great apostasy and the forerunners of Anti-
Christ.4

2. REFUTATION OF CHILIASM. — Chiliasm in
both its forms is untenable.

a) Heretical Chiliasm stands condemned in
the light of the moral law, which excludes in
temperance and unchastity from the kingdom of
Heaven.5 It is blasphemous and an insult to God
to assert that Christ, who is all-holy, will found
an earthly paradise for libertines. No wonder
even those Fathers and ecclesiastical writers who
entertained Chiliastic ideas vigorously condemned

fuit illius opinio, regnum Christi ter- Catholique selon le Plan Divvn,

renum futurum. Et quarum rerum 1890) and Rohling (Erklarung der

cupiditate ipse flagrabat, utpote vo- Apokalypse, 1895; Die Zukunft der

luptatibus corporis obnoxius carnique Menschheit als Gattung, 1907) see

addictus, in eis regnum Dei situm Scheeben-Atzberger, Dogmatik, Vol.

fore somniavit." IV, 3, p. 908.

4 On the modified Millenarianism 5 Cfr. Matth. XXII, 30; Rom.

of Chabauty (Avenir de I'Eglise XIV, 17; i Cor. XV, 50 et passim.

CHILIASM 157

this grossly sensual species of Millenarianism as
heretical.

b) It is not so easy to refute the more moderate
form of Chiliasm, for it seems to have a basis
in Sacred Scripture and primitive Tradition.

The New Testament as well as the early creeds
speak of the Resurrection of the flesh, the Last
Judgment, and the end of the world in terms
which make it apparent that these three events
are to follow one another in close succession,0
leaving no time for a millennium.

a) The favorite passage of the Chiliasts is in the Apo
calypse and reads as follows : " And I beheld an angel
coming down from heaven, holding in his hand the key of
the bottomless pit, and a great chain. And he seized
the dragon, the ancient serpent, who is the devil and Satan,
and bound him for a thousand years. . . . They [i. e. the
just] came to life again, and reigned with Christ for a
thousand years. The rest of the dead came not to life
until the thousand years were accomplished. This is the
first resurrection. . . . And when the thousand years are
accomplished, Satan shall be loosed from his prison, and
he shall come forth to lead astray the nations which are
in the four corners of the earth . . ." 7

6 Cfr. John VI, 39; John XII, 48; animae] et regnaverunt cum Christo
Matth. XXIV, i4sqq.; i Thess. IV, mille annis (x^Xta ITIJ). Ceteri
15 sq. mortuorum non vixerunt, donee

7 Apoc. XX, i sqq. : " Et vidi consummentur mille anni (T& x^ta
angclum descendentem de each, ha- &TT;) • haec est resurrectio prima.
bentem clavem abyssi, et catenam . . . Et quum consummate fuerint
magnam in mami sua. Et appre- mille anni, solvetur satanas de car-
hendit draconem, serpentem anti- cere suo, et exibit, et seducet gentes,
quum, qui est diabolus, et satanas, et quae sunt super quattuor angulos
ligavit eum per annos mille (xtXia terrae."

£777) . . . Et vixerunt [iustorum

158 THE END OF THE WORLD

This is undeniably one of the most difficult and obscure
passages found in Sacred Scripture, and no one has yet
succeeded in explaining it satisfactorily. But it proves
nothing in favor of Millenarianism, which has no claim to
our assent unless it can show that its tenets do not conflict
with the general teaching of the Bible. Among the more
probable interpretations of the Johannine text suggested
by Catholic writers we may mention that of St. Augustine,
which was adopted by Pope St. Gregory the Great. These
two Fathers think that the imprisonment of Satan refers
to the first coming of our Lord, and his temporary loosing
to His second coming (parousia) at the time of Anti
christ. Christ's millennial reign with His saints on earth
(the "first resurrection") signifies the kingdom of
Heaven, where the Blessed reign under the headship of
our Lord before the " second resurrection " (i. e. the Res
urrection of the flesh). Similarly, the term " first death "
is applied to the separation of the body from the soul,
whereas " second death " refers to eternal damnation. If
this theory is correct, the number one thousand is not to be
taken literally, but simply indicates an indefinite period of
considerable length.

P) Despite appearances to the contrary, Chiliasm has
no foundation in Tradition. Among its early advocates
Lactantius, Nepos, Commodian, and Victorinus may, in
the light of the Decretum Gelasianum, be set aside as
worthless witnesses.8 The same could be said of Sulpi-
cius Severus if he were to be reckoned among the Chili-
asts, which is, however, extremely doubtful, as his ex
tant writings contain no trace of this error. Of the
remaining writers who are quoted in favor of Chiliasm we

8 The Decretum de recipiendis et synod about A. D. 494. Cfr. Barden-

non recipiendis libris is a series of hewer-Shahan, Petrology, p. 620;

papal decrees said to have been is- Mansi, Collect. Condi., VIII, i5x»

sued by St. Gelasius I at a Roman 170.

CHILIASM 159

may disregard Papias because he was uncritical,9 and
Tertullian because he was a heretic when he em
braced Millenarianism.10 St. Justin Martyr 1X and St.
Irenaeus,12 the only two remaining witnesses who
are absolutely trustworthy, did not inculcate Chiliasm as
an article of faith, but merely proposed it as a personal
opinion. Whether St. Melito, Bishop of Sardes, har
bored Millenarian notions, is uncertain.13 St. Hippolytus,
who is numbered among the Chiliasts by Bonwetsch,14
has not written a single line, in the works that have come
down to us, which must necessarily be interpreted in a
Chiliastic sense.15 Bonwetsch himself 16 is constrained to
admit that Hippolytus discarded some of the eschato-
logical notions held by Irenaeus and Tertullian.

Among the opponents of Chiliasm were Clemens Alex-
andrinus, Origen, and Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria,
whom Eusebius honored with the title of Great and
St. Athanasius called a Doctor of the Catholic Church.17

READINGS: — !. B. Paganini, Das Ende der Welt oder die
Wiederkunft unsercs Herrn, 2nd ed., Ratisbon 1882.— J. Bautz,
Weltgericht und Weltende, Mayence 1886.— J. Sigmund, Das
Ende der Zeiten mit einem Nachblick in die Ewigkeit, oder das
Weltgericht mit seincn Ursachen, Vorzeichen und Folgen, Salz
burg 1892.— ). A. McHugh in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.
VIII, pp. 552 sq.— J. Tixeront, History of Dogmas, 3 Vols.,
St. Louis 1910-1916, see Index s. v. " Judgment."— St. Thomas,
5. Theol, Supplem., qu. 49-91.

9 Cfr. Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., Ill, 15 Cfr. Atzberger, Geschichte der
39, ii. christlichen Eschatologie innerhalb

10 Cfr. Tertullian, Adv. Marcion., der vornis'dnischen Zeit, pp. 278 sqq.,
Ill, 24. Freiburg 1896.

11 Dial. c. Tryph., c. 80 sq. 16 Studicn su den Kommentaren

12 Adv. Haer., V, 32 sqq. Hippolyts, p. 50, Leipsic 1897.

13 Cfr. Bardenhewer, Geschichte 17 Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., VI, 35;
der altkirchlichen Liter atur, Vol. I, VII, praef.; St. Athanasius, Ep. de
p. 551, Freiburg 1902. Sent. Dion., c. 6. Cfr. Barden-

llHippol. Opera, pp. 243 sq., Leip- hewer-Shahan, Patrology, p. 154-
sic 1897.

160 THE END OF THE WORLD

On Chiliasm see H. Corrodi, Kritische Geschichte des Chilias-
mus, 1794-— H. Klee, De Chiliasmo Primorum Saeculorum, May-
ence 1825. — Wagner, Der Chiliasmus in den ersten Jahrhunderten,
1849. — J. N. Schneider, Die chiliastische Doktrin und ihr Ver-
hdltnis zur christlichen Glaubenslehre (pro-Chiliastic), Schaff-
hausen 1859.— J. P. Kirsch, art. " Millennium," in Vol. X of the
Catholic Encyclopedia, pp. 307-310. — Chiapelli, Le Idee Millenarie
del Cristiani, Naples 1888. — L. Guy, Le Millenarisme dans ses Ori-
gines et son Developpement, Paris 1904. — Franzelin, De Scripiura
et Traditione, P. II, thes. 16, Rome 1896.— H. Kihn, Patrologie,
Vol. I, pp. 120 sqq., Paderborn 1904. — J. Tixeront, History of
Dogmas, Vol. I, St. Louis 1910 (see Index s. v. " Millenarian-
ism").

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Editor begs leave to express his gratitude for
valuable assistance rendered in the preparation of this
series, to the Rt. Rev. Abbot Charles Mohr, OS.B., D.D.,
of St. Leo, Fla.; the V. Rev. Bernard J. Otting, S.L,
President of St. Louis University; the Rev. James A.
Kleist, S.J., of Campion College, Prairie du Chien, Wis.,
and the Rev. A. J. Wolfgarten, D.D., Ph.D., of the Ca
thedral College, Chicago, III.

INDEX

"Abraham's bosom," 26.

Acts of the Martyrs, 27.

Adam, 6, II, 12.

Aerius, 77.

Agility as an endowment of the

glorified body, 146 sq.
Albigenses, 78, 122.
Alexander VII, 90.
Ambrose, St., 10, 58, 86, 130.
Amor beatificus, 31.
Angels, 36, 92, 93, 99, W, 152,

157-

Anselm, St., 119.
Antichrist, 109 sqq., 156, 158.
Apocalypse, 8 sq., 33, 47, 66, 73,

133, 155 sq., 157-
Apocatastasis, 67 sqq., 122 sq.
Apostasy, The great, 109 sq.
Apostles, 153.

Apostles' Creed, 39, 92, 122.
Appollinarianists, 155.
Armenian heretics, 131.
Athanasian Creed, 65, 122, 132.
Athanasius, St., 159.
Athenagoras, 130.
Augustine, St., 5 sq., 8, 10, 12,

14, 20 sq., 33, 40, 42, 58, 65, 68,

71, 81, 86, sq., 97, 102, 105, 136,

A

Aureola, 43.

B

Baptism, 94 sq.
Barnabas, Epistle of, 151.
Basil, St., 58, 81, 154.
Beatitude, 29 sqq., 52.
Bellarmine, Card., 36, 88, 96, 100.
Benedict XII, 23, 24, 32, 39.
Bessarion, Card., 85.

Body, Nature of the risen, 138

sqq. ; Identity of, 140 sqq. ;

Four transcendent qualities

of, 144 sqq.
Boethius, 29.
Bonaventure, St., 15, 84.
Bonwetsch, 159.
" Book of Judgment," 18 sq.
Braun, Charles (S.J.), 118.
Brightness as a quality of the

glorified body, 145 sq.
Burying the dead, 96.

Calvin, 19, 78, 82.
Catharinus, Ambrose, 56.
Cerinthus, 155.
Chiliasm, 19, 22, 149, 151, 155

sqq.
Chrysostom, St., 10, 25, 48, 49,

51, 54, 68, 95, 112.
Clement of Alexandria, St., 87,

88, 130, 159.

Clement of Rome, St., 131, 134.
Commodian, 155, 158.
Communion of Saints, 36, 92

sqq.

Compenetrabilitas, 148.
Conflagration, The universal,

117 sqq.
Constantinople, Council of

(543), 65; (553), 65, 122 sq.
Consummation of the world,

I, 2.

Cosmas Indicopleustes, 50.
Cremation, 96.
Cyprian, St., 14, 26, 69.
Cyril of Jerusalem, St., 97, 131.

161

Dante, 49, 74-

162

INDEX

Dead, Succoring the, 92 sqq.

Death, 5 sqq.

Debitum mortis, 13.

Definition of Eschatology, I sq.

Degrees of happiness ^ in
Heaven, 40 sqq.; Of punish
ment in Hell, 72 sqq.

Descent into Hell, Christ's, 27

Didymus the Blind, 67 sq.

Dieringer, 88.

Dies Domini, 108, 1 10.

Dinocrates, 81.

Dionysius of Alexandria, 159.

Disturbances of nature preced
ing the General Judgment,
114 sqq.

Dives, 20, 25.

Division of Eschatology, 2 sq.

Dollinger, 112.

Dotes beatorum, 37 sq.

"Dowry" of the Blessed, 37 sq.

Draper, 50.

Durandus, 140.

Duration of Purgatory, 90 sq.

Ebionites, 155.
Ecclesiasticus, 126.
Elias, 8 sq., 11, 107 sq., 126.
End of the world, 117 sqq.
Ephraem, St., 58, 130.
Eternal punishment, 65 sqq.
Eternity of Heaven, 39 sqq.
Etisebius, 19 sq., 155, 159-
Evagrius of Pontus, 68.
Evil, 32 sq.
Ezechiel, 123 sq., 139.

Faith, 34, 38.

Fate, i.

Fire of Hell, 56 sqq. ; Of Purga
tory, 85 sqq.

Flammarion, 50.

Florence, Council of (1439), 23,
24, 32, 41, 78, 85.

Four last things, 2.

Galileo, 50 sq.

Gehenna, 45 sq.

Gnostics, 122, 155.

Gregory of Nazianzus, St., 68.

Gregory of Nyssa, St., 68 sq., 71,

130.
Gregory the Great, St., 25, 51,

69, 73, 87, 158.

H

Hase, 82.

Heaven : Existence of, 28 sqq. ;
Properties of, 39 sqq.

Hell : Existence of, 45 sqq. ; Lo
cation of, 49 sqq.; Nature of
punishment of, 52 sqq. ; Char
acteristics of, 65 sqq.

Henoch, 8 sq., n, 107, 108 sq.

Henry of Ghent, 58.

Heroic act of charity, 98.

Hesychasts, 31 sq.

Hilary, St., 22, 25.

Hippolytus, St., 159.

Hirscher, 15, 55.

Hunter, S. J. (S.J.), 19.

Hussites, 78.

Hypnopsychites, 7, 19, 22.

I

Identity of the risen body, 140

sqq.
Ignatius of Antioch, St., 41 sq.,

47-

Immortality, 13, 16.
Impassibility of the risen body,

144 sq.

Impeccability of the Blessed, 33.
Indulgences, 96, 98.
Integrity of the risen body, 142

sq.

Irenseus, St., 22, 155, 159.
Irvingites, 155.

Jerome, St., 10, 42, 68, 106, 125,
139-

INDEX

16;

Jews, Conversion of the, 105

Job, 124 sqq., 139.

John XXII, 24.

John Chrysostom, St. See

Chrysostom.
John Damascene, 58.
John the Baptist, 107, 153.
Jovinian, 40, 42.
Judas Maccabseus, 79 sq.
Judgment, Particular, 18 sqq. ;

General, 149 sqq.
Justin Martyr, St., 22, 48, 130,

155, 159.

K

Kare^on/ 'O 112 sq
Kiefi, F. X, 55.
Klee, 88.

Lactantius, 58, 155, 158.
Last Judgment, 149 sqq.
Lateran, Fourth Council of the,

123, 132, 138.
Lattey, C. (S.J.), 9, 10.
Lazarus, 20, 25, 26, 128, 136.
Leo IX, 138.
Leo X, 79.
Lessius, 58.
Life a pilgrimage, 15.
Lombroso, 72.
Lumen gloria, 30, 34, 42.
Luther, 40, 84, 106.
Lyons, Council of (1274), 24.

M

Machabees, 126 sq.

McRory, J., 9, 94.

Maldonatus, 90.

Manichreans, 122.

Mary, Bl. Virgin, 12, 13, 99, I37>
144. 153-

Melito of Sardes, 159.

Merits can no longer be ac
quired after death, 13 sqq.

Michael Paloeologus, 23.

Michael, St., 99.

Millennium, 156.

Minucius Felix, 67, 130 sq.

Mohler, 56, 88.

Monica, St., 81.

Mormons, 155.

Mysteries, Theological, 34 sq.

N

Nepos, 155, 158.
Nero, 112.

O

Object of the beatific vision, 34

sqq.
Origen, 32, 39, 56, 65, 67, 68, 71,

87, 122, 130, 139, 159.
Osee, 123.

P

Palamites, 31 sq.

Papias, 155 sq., 159.

Parousia, 150 sqq., 158.

Paul, St., 9 sqq., 12, 14, 20, 26, 28,
30, 34, 41, 47, 69, 86, 98, 105,
106, 108, 109, no, in, 115, 121,
129 sq., 133 sq., 139, 143 sq.,
145, 146, 150.

Perpetua, St., 81.

Petavius, 68.

Pius IX, 98.

Poena damni, 52 sqq., 83 sq.

Poena sensus, 52, 56 sqq., 84 sqq.

Polycarp, St., 41, 67.

Prayers for the dead, 81 sq., 92
sqq.

Preaching of the Christian re
ligion, 104 sq.

Probation, Death ends state of,
13 sqq.

Protestants, 65 sq., 78, 80, 82.

Prudentius, St., 68, 69.

Psychopannychy, 7.

Ptolemaic system, 49 sq.

Purgatory: Existence of, -75
sqq. ; Nature and duration of,
83 sqq.

Hvp ff(i)<f>povovv} 67.

R
Razias, 127.

i64

INDEX

Reason, The dogma of eternal

punishment not contrary to,

69 sqq.
Resurrection of the flesh, 121

sqq.
Rickaby, Jos. (S.J.), 61 sq., 119

sq.

Ripalda, 15.
Roman Catechism, n.
Rosenmiiller, 125 sq.
Rosmini, 32.

Sadducees, 46, 122, 128, 129.

Satanism, 55.

Satispassio, 90.

Scheeben, 135.

Schell, 55-

Schmid, Fr., 58.

Scotists, 30, 33, 40.

" Second death," 69, 158.

Signs preceding the General

Judgment, 103.
Sin, 12 sq., 15, 32, 52 sq., 70 sq.,

88 sqq.

Soto, Dominicus, 90, 96.
Soul-sleep, 7, 19 sq.
Stufler,J. (SJ.),55.
Suarez, 60, 100, 147.
Subtility of the glorified body,

147 sq.

Suffrages for the dead, 95 sqq.
Sulpicius Severus, 158.

Tanner, 58.

Tertullian, 8, 10, 22, 42, 81, 130,
131, 134, 155, 159.

Theodoret, 136.

Thnetopsychites, 20, 22.

Thomas, St., n, 29, 33, 40, 42,
52, 55 sq., 59 sq., 60 sq., 68, 70,
71, 72, 75, 76, 84, 89, 100, 120,
135, 139, 141, 143, 145, 146, 147,
148, 153-

Thomists, 30, 60.

Toledo, Eleventh Council of,
122, 138.

Toletus, 58.

Trent, Council of, 78, 92.

Trinity, 30, 34.

Two witnesses, The, 8 sq.

U

Universality of death, 7 sqq.;
Of the Resurrection, 132 sqq.

Valentinus, 46.

Valley of Josaphat, 151.

Vasquez, 15.

Victorious of Pettau, 155, 158.

Vindictive punishment, 71 sq.

Vision, Beatific, 29 sqq., 52.

W

Wadding, 24.
Waldenses, 78, 122.

Deo gr atlas!

BT 821 .P613 1918 SMC
Pohle, Joseph,
lEschatology 47168359